THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 


This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below 

OCT  1  'p  1  2  1950 


of  raOFOBNI A 

AT 

L(  -          -ELES 

•tfARY 


HISTORY 


OF 


EDUCATION 


BY 


LEVI    SEELEY,   PH.D. 

PROFESSOR  OF  PEDAGOGY  IN  THE  NEW  JERSEY 
STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL 


THIRD  REVISED  EDITIOtf 


NEW  YORK  •:•  CINCINNATI  •:•  CHICAGO 

AMERICAN    BOOK   COMPANY 


8  816V 


COPYRIGHT,  1899,  1904,  1914,  BY 

LEVI  SEELEY. 
Entered  at  Stationers'  Hall. 

HIST.    OP   EDUCATION 
•  -  P       1 


L  A  I  3 


PREFACE 

THE  importance  of  a  knowledge  of  the  history  of  edu- 
cation was  never  so  fully  recognized  as  at  the  present 
time.      Normal  schools  and  teachers'  colleges  give  this 
^  subject  a  prominent  place  in  their  professional  courses, 
xx  superintendents  require  candidates  for  certificates  to  pass 
examination  in  it,  and  familiarity  with  it  is  an  essential 
part   of   the   equipment  of    every  well-informed   teacher. 
The  history  of  education  portrays  the  theories  and  methods 
1  of  the  past,  warns  of  error  and  indicates  established  truth, 
shows  difficulties  surmounted,  and  encourages  the  teacher 
of  to-day  by  examples  of  heroism  and  consecration  on  the 
*  part  of  educators  whose  labors  for  their  fellow-men  we  dis- 
^  cuss.     To  the  teacher  this  study  is  a  constant  help  in  the 
>  schoolroom,  the  trials  of  which  are  met  with  the  added 
strength  and  inspiration  from  contact  with  great  teachers 
of  the  past. 

No  text-book  can  be  said  to  contain  the  last  word  upon 
any  subject.  Least  of  all  can  such  a  claim  be  made  for  a 
history  of  education,  which  aims  to  trace  the  intellectual 
development  of  the  human  race  and  to  indicate  the  means 
and  processes  of  that  evolution.  Any  individuals  or  factors 
materially  contributing  thereto  deserve  a  place  in  educa- 
tional history.  As  to  which  of  these  factors  is  the  most 
important,  that  is  a  question  of  choice,  upon  which,  doubt- 
less, many  will  differ  with  the  author.  Some  educators, 
whose  claims  to  consideration  are  unquestioned,  have  been 

3 


4  PREFACE 

reluctantly  omitted  on  account  of  the  limitations  of  this 
work. 

On  the  otber  hand,  many  teachers  lack  time  for  ex- 
haustive study  of  such  a  subject.  This  book  is  designed 
to  furnish  all  the  material  that  can  be  reasonably  de- 
manded for  any  state,  county,  or  city  teacher's  certificate. 
It  also  provides  sufficient  subject-matter  for  classes  in 
normal  schools  and  colleges  and  for  reading  circles.  The 
material  offered  can  be  mastered  in  a  half-year's  class  work, 
but,  by  using  the  references,  a  full  year  can  be  well  employed. 
For  those  who  desire  to  make  a  more  extended  study  of 
particular  topics,  the  author  gives  such  authorities  as  years 
of  careful  research  have  shown  to  be  most  valuable.  Every 
investigator  knows  the  labor  involved  in  finding  suitable 
material.  To  spare  the  reader  something  of  that  labor, 
the  literature  is  given  at  the  beginning  of  each  chapter. 
By  following  the  collateral  readings  thus  suggested,  this 
book  will  be  found  suitable  for  the  most  advanced  classes. 

The  plan  of  references  embraces  three  features:  (i)  lit- 
erature at  the  beginning  of  each  chapter ;  (2)  foot  refer- 
ences to  special  citations ;  and  (3)  a  general  bibliography 
in  the  Appendix.  In  the  first  two,  titles  are  sometimes 
abbreviated  because  of  their  frequent  repetition.  In  case 
of  doubt  the  reader  should  refer  to  the  general  bibliog- 
raphy, in  which  all  the  authorities  cited  are  arranged 
alphabetically,  with  full  titles. 

To  get  the  greatest  value  from  this  study,  classes  should 
be  required  to  keep  a  notebook  which  should  follow  some 
uniform  plan.  I  suggest  the  following  as  such  outline : 
(i)  historical  and  geographical ;  (2)  home  life ;  (3)  physi- 
cal, religious,  and  aesthetic  education ;  (4)  elementary  and 
higher  education;  (5)  summary  of  lessons  taught;  (6)  ed- 
ucators :  (a]  life,  (b)  writings,  (r)  pedagogical  teachings. 


PREFACE  5 

Of  course  each  teacher  will  modify  this  outline  to  suit  his 
own  ideals.  Such  notebook  will  be  found  to  be  of  value 
not  only  in  review,  but  also  in  fixing  the  subject-matter  in 
the  mind  of  the  student. 

It  is  generally  conceded  that  the  plan  of  an  historical 
work  should  be  based  upon  the  evolution  of  civilization. 
In  common  with  other  recent  writers  on  educational  his- 
tory, the  author  accepts  the  general  plan  of  Karl  Schmidt 
in  his  "Geschichte  der  Padagogik,"  the  most  comprehen- 
sive work  on  this  subject  that  has  yet  appeared.  But  the 
specific  plan,  which  involves  the  most  important  and  vital 
characteristics  of  this  book,  is  the  author's  own.  The  de- 
tails of  this  specific  plan  embrace  a  study  of  the  history  and 
environment,  of  the  internal,  social,  political,  and  religions 
conditions  of  the  people,  without  which  there  can  be  no 
accurate  conception  of  their  education. 

Our  civilization  had  its  inception  in  that  of  ancient 
Egypt,  and  thence  its  logical  development  must  be  traced. 
If  desirable  the  teacher  can  omit  the  chapters  on  China, 
India,  Persia,  and  Israel.  It  will  be  found,  however,  that 
the  lessons  taught  by  these  countries,  though  negative  in 
character,  are  intensely  interesting  to  students,  and  most 
instructive  and  impressive.  These  countries  are  also  ad- 
mirably illustrative  of  the  plan  employed  in  the  book,  and 
thereby  prepare  the  way  for  later  work.  That  plan  is  more 
fully  set  forth  in  the  Introduction,  a  careful  study  of  which 
is  recommended  to  both  teacher  and  student. 

The  author  wishes  to  acknowledge  his  appreciation  of 
the  valuable  assistance  in  the  preparation  of  this  volume 
rendered  by  Dr.  Elias  F.  Carr  of  the  New  Jersey  Normal 
School,  and  Professor  W.  J.  Morrison  of  the  Brooklyn 
Training  School  for  Teachers. 

LEVI   SEELEY. 


6  PREFACE 

REVISED    EDITIONS 

THREE  revisions  of  this  book  have  been  made.  The  first 
of  these  corrected  some  minor  errors  and  noted  changes  that 
had  taken  place  in  the  English  and  French  systems.  In 
the  second  revision  brief  sketches  of  the  Sophists,  Plutarch, 
Marcus  Aurelius,  Rollin,  and  Jacotot  were  added,  while 
in  an  Appendix  the  National  Education  Association,  the 
Herbartian  Movement,  Child  Study,  Manual  Training,  and 
other  topics  were  treated. 

At  the  suggestion  of  numerous  teachers  and  on  ac- 
count of  the  continued  interest  in  this  book,  a  third  and 
more  extended  revision  is  undertaken.  Education  in  China 
has  undergone  a  wonderful  change  in  connection  with  the 
political  upheaval  and  modernizing  tendencies  in  that  great 
nation.  Educational  development  in  other  countries  has 
also  been  somewhat  marked,  and  I  have  sought  to  present 
the  principal  changes.  A  brief  study  of  our  own  early 
education  has  been  added  in  order  to  bring  the  history  of 
education  down  to  date  in  America  as  well  as  in  other 
countries.  Recent  educational  movements  are  presented  in 
a  separate  chapter  rather  than  as  an  appendix.  Among 
other  topics  added  are  a  discussion  of  "  Agriculture  in 
the  Schools,"  "  Continuation  Schools,"  "  Medical  Inspec- 
tion," "The  Certificating  of  Teachers,"  "Supervision," 
and  the  "  Montessori  Method."  Minor  changes  through- 
out the  book,  including  late  educational  statistics,  will  tend 
to  bring  it  down  to  date.  The  general  plan  of  the  book  re- 
mains unchanged,  as  it  is  believed  to  be  sound  pedagogi- 
cally  and  well  suited  to  the  needs  of  Normal  Schools, 
Training  Classes,  Reading  Circles,  and  teachers  who  can 
devote  only  a  limited  time  to  this  subject.  It  is  hoped  that 
these  improvements  will  be  a  further  aid  and  stimulus  to 
all  students  of  the  history  of  education.  L.  S. 


TABLE   OF   CONTENTS 


CHAPTER   I 

PAGE 

INTRODUCTION 15 

I.  Purpose  of  the  history  of  education.  2.  Plan  of  study.  3.  The 
study  of  great  educators.  4.  Modern  systems  of  education.  5.  Gen- 
eral outline. 

/  CHAPTER  II 

I/CHINA 20 

I.  Geography  and  history.  2.  The  home.  3.  The  elementary 
school.  4.  Higher  education.  5.  The  New  Movement.  6.  Mod- 
ern System.  7.  Criticism  of  Chinese  education.  8.  Confucius. 


CHAPTER   III 

'INDIA 33 

i.  Geography  and  history.  2.  The  caste  system.  3.  The  home. 
4.  The  elementary  school.  5.  Higher  education.  6.  Criticism  of 
Hindu  education.  7.  Buddha. 


CHAPTER   IV 

PERSIA 4° 

I.  Geography  and  history.     2.  The  home.     3.  The  State  educa- 
tion.   4.  Criticism  of  Persian  education.     5.  Zoroaster. 


I                                           CHAPTER  V 
E  JEWS 44 

i.  Geography  and  history.  2.  The  home.  3.  The  Jewish  school. 
4.  Esteem  for  the  teachers.  5.  The  Schools  of  the  Rabbis.  6.  Criti- 
cism of  Jewish  education.  7.  The  Talmud. 

7 


/ 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


CHAPTER   VI 

f  PAGE 

V  EGYPT 50 

i.  Geography  and  history.  2.  The  caste  system.  3.  The  home. 
4.  Education.  5.  Criticism  of  Egyptian  education.  6.  General 
summary  of  oriental  education. 

CHAPTER   VII 

GREECE 57 

i.  Geography  and  history.  2.  Manners  and  customs.  3.  The 
Olympian  games. 

CHAPTER  VIII 

ATHENS 60 

i.  Historical.  2.  The  difference  in  spirit  between  Athens  and 
Sparta.  3.  The  home.  4.  Education.  5.  The  Sophists.  6.  Criti- 
cism of  Athenian  education. 

CHAPTER   IX 

ATHENIAN  EDUCATORS .       .65 

I.  Socrates, — life,  method,  death.  2.  Plato,  —  life,  his  "  Repub- 
lic," scheme  and  aim  of  education.  3.  Aristotle,  —  life,  pedagogy, 
estimate  of  him. 

r  CHAPTER  X 

i  SPARTA 72 

i.  Historical.  2.  The  home.  3.  Education.  4.  Criticism  of 
Spartan  education.  5.  Lycurgus.  6.  Pythagoras. 

CHAPTER  XI 
ROME 78 

i.  The  Age  of  Augustus.  2.  Geography  and  history.  3.  The 
home.  4.  Education,  —  elementary,  secondary,  higher.  5.  Criti- 
cism of  Roman  education. 

CHAPTER   XII 

ROMAN  EDUCATORS 85 

I.  Cicero, — life,  philosophy,  pedagogy.  2.  Seneca, — the  teacher 
of  Nero,  great  orator,  writer,  etc.,  pedagogical  writings.  3.  Quin- 
tilian,  —  his  school,  his  "  Institutes  of  Oratory,"  pedagogical  prin- 
ciples. 4.  Plutarch  and  Marcus  Aurelius. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS  9 

CHAPTER  XIII 

PAGE 

N/tHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  —  INTRODUCTION 93 

I.  General  view.     2.  New  principles  introduced  by  Christianity. 

3.  Importance  of  the  individual.     4.    Obstacles  which   the   early 
Christians  had  to  meet.     5.  Slow  growth  of  Christian  education. 

CHAPTER   XIV 

THE  GREAT  TEACHER 100 

I.  Life  and  character.     2.  Impression  which  Christ  made.     3.  His 
work  as  a  teacher.     4.  An  example  of  pedagogical  practice. 

CHAPTER  XV 
GENERAL  VIEW  OF  THE  FIRST  PERIOD  OF  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION       .     105 

I.  The  period  covered.     2.  The  connection  of  the  Church  with 
education.     3.   The   monasteries.      4.   Influence   of  the   crusades. 

5.  Of  the  Teutonic  peoples. 

CHAPTER  XVI 

THE  FIRST  CHRISTIAN  SCHOOLS    .        .  .        .  .        .        .     108 

I.  The    catechumen    schools.      2.  Chrysostom.  3.    Basil    the 

Great.    4.  The  catechetical   schools.  5.   Clement  of  Alexandria. 

6.  Origen. 

CHAPTER   XVII 

CONFLICT  BETWEEN  PAGAN  AND  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION       .        .        .     115 
I.    General   discussion.       2.    Tertullian.       3.    Saint   Augustine. 

4.  Augustine's  pedagogy. 

CHAPTER  XVIII 

MONASTIC  EDUCATION 120 

I.  Monasteries.     2.  The  Benedictines.     3.  The  seven  liberal  arts. 
4.  Summary  of  benefits  conferred  by  the  monasteries. 

CHAPTER  XIX 

SCHOLASTICISM 125 

I.  Its  character.     2.   Its  influence.     3.    Summary  of  its  benefits. 


10  TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  XX 

PAG* 

CHARLEMAGNE 129 

I.  History,  character,  and  purpose.  2.  Personal  education. 
3.  General  educational  plans.  4.  Summary  of  Charlemagne's 
work. 

CHAPTER  XXI 

ALFRED  THE  GREAT 134 

I.  History  and  character.     2.  Educational  work. 

CHAPTER  XXII 

FEUDAL  EDUCATION .        .        .136 

I.  Character  of  the  knights.  2.  Three  periods  into  which  their 
education  was  divided.  3.  Education  of  women.  4.  Criticism  of 
feudal  education. 

CHAPTER  XXIII 

THE  CRUSADES  AS  AN  EDUCATIONAL  MOVEMENT         ....     140 

I.  Causes  of  the  crusades.  2.  The  most  important  crusades. 
3.  Summary  of  their  educational  value. 

CHAPTER  XXIV 

THE  RISE  OF  THE  UNIVERSITIES 143 

I.  What  led  to  their  establishment.  2.  The  most  important 
early  universities.  3.  Their  privileges.  4.  Their  influence. 

CHAPTER  XXV 

MOHAMMEDAN  EDUCATION 147 

I.  History  of  Mohammedanism.  2.  The  five  Moslem  precepts. 
3.  Education.  4.  What  the  Mohammedans  accomplished  for 
science.  5.  General  summary  of  education  during  the  Middle 
Ages. 

CHAPTER  XXVI 

THE  RENAISSANCE 152 

I.  The  great  revival.  2.  Principles  proclaimed.  3.  The  move- 
ment in  Italy.  4.  In  Germany.  5.  Summary  of  the  benefits  of  the 
Renaissance  to  education. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS  II 

CHAPTER   XXVII 

PAGE 

HUMANISTIC  EDUCATORS       .        . 159 

I .  Revival  of  the  classics  their  purpose.  2.  Dante.  3.  Petrarch. 
4.  Boccaccio.  5-  Agricola.  6.  Reuchlin.  7.  Erasmus.  8.  Peda- 
gogy of  Erasmus. 

CHAPTER   XXVIII 

THE  REFORMATION  AS  AN  EDUCATIONAL  INFLUENCE   .        .        .        .168 

I.  Conditions  at  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century.  2.  The 
invention  of  printing.  3.  The  rulers  of  the  leading  countries. 
4.  Intellectual  conditions.  5.  Luther.  6.  Luther's  pedagogy. 
7.  Melanchthon. 

CHAPTER  XXIX 

OTHER  PROTESTANT  EDUCATORS 178 

I.  Sturm.  2.  The  Gymnasium  at  Strasburg.  3.  The  celebrated 
course  of  study.  4.  Trotzendorf.  5.  Neander. 

CHAPTER  XXX 

THE  JESUITS  AND  THEIR  EDUCATION 186 

I.  The  order.  2.  Loyola.  3.  Growth  of  the  society.  4.  Jesuit 
education.  5.  Use  of  emulation.  6.  Estimate  of  their  educational 
work.  7.  Summary.  8.  The  Port  Royalists. 

CHAPTER  XXXI 

OTHER  EDUCATORS  OF  THE  SIXTEENTH  CENTURY         .        .        .        .194 

I.  Roger  Ascham.  2.  Double  translating.  3.  Rabelais.  4.  First 
appearance  of  realism  in  instruction.  5.  Montaigne.  6.  Summary 
of  progress  during  the  sixteenth  century. 

CHAPTER  XXXII 

EDUCATION  DURING  THE  SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY         ....    204 

I.  Political  and  historical  conditions.  2.  The  educational  situa- 
tion. 3.  Compulsory  education.  4.  The  Innovators. 


12  TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  XXXIII 

PAGE 

EDUCATORS  OF  THE  SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY 209 

I.  Bacon.  2.  The  inductive  method.  3.  Ratke.  4.  His  peda- 
gogy. 5.  Comenius.  6.  The  "  Orbis  Pictus."  7.  Summary  of  his 
work.  8.  Milton.  9.  Locke.  10.  Fenelon.  n.  His  pedagogy. 
12.  La  Salle  and  the  brothers  of  the  Christian  schools.  13.  Rollin. 
14.  Summary  of  the  educational  progress  of  the  seventeenth  century. 

CHAPTER  XXXIV 

FRANCKE  AND  THE  PIETISTS 235 

I.  Pietism.  2.  Francke.  3.  The  Institutions  at  Halle.  4.  The 
training  of  teachers.  5.  The  Real-school. 

CHAPTER  XXXV 

GENERAL  VIEW  OF  THE  EIGHTEENTH  AND  NINETEENTH  CENTURIES   .     241 

I.  The  abolition  of  slavery.  2.  The  extension  of  political  rights. 
3.  Science  as  an  instrument  of  civilization.  4.  Religious  freedom. 

CHAPTER  XXXVI 

MODERN  EDUCATORS  —  ROUSSEAU 245 

I.  Life.     2.  Pedagogy.     3.  The  "  Emile." 

CHAPTER  XXXVII 

MODERN  EDUCATORS  —  BASEDOW 254 

I.  Life.     2.  The  Philanthropin.     3.  Writings.     4.   Jacotot. 

CHAPTER  XXXVIII 

MODERN  EDUCATORS  —  PESTALOZZI 261 

I.  Childhood.  2.  Schooling.  3.  Life  purpose.  4.  The  Chris- 
tian ministry.  5.  The  law.  6.  Farming.  7.  Marriage.  8.  At 
Neuhof.  9.  Authorship.  10.  At  Stanz.  n.  At  Burgdorf.  12.  At 
Yverdon.  13.  Summary  of  Pestalozzi's  work. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  XXXIX 

PAGE 

MODERN  EDUCATORS  —  FROEBEL 276 

i.  Life.  2.  As  teacher.  3.  His  first  school.  4.  The  kinder- 
garten. 5.  The  "  Education  of  Man." 

CHAPTER  XL 

MODERN  EDUCATORS  —  HERBART 282 

I.  Life.  2.  Experience  as  a  tutor.  3.  As  a  university  professor. 
4.  His  practice  school  in  the  university.  5.  Writings.  6.  His 
pedagogical  work.  7.  Work  of  modern  Herbartians. 

CHAPTER  XLI 

MODERN  EDUCATORS  —  HORACE  MANN 288 

I.  Life.  2.  Work  as  a  statesman.  3.  As  an  educator.  4.  His 
Seventh  Annual  Report.  5.  Love  for  the  common  schools. 

CHAPTER  XLII 
THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY       .......    293 

I.  Administration.  2.  School  attendance.  3.  The  schools. 
4.  Support  of  schools.  5.  The  teachers. 

CHAPTER  XLIII 

THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  FRANCE 300 

I.  Administration.  2.  School  attendance.  3.  The  schools. 
4.  Support  of  schools.  5.  The  teachers. 

CHAPTER  XLIV 

THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  ENGLAND 308 

I.  Administration.  2.  School  attendance.  3.  The  schools. 
4.  Support  of  schools.  5.  The  teachers. 

CHAPTER  XLV 

THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 313 

I.  No  national  system.  2.  State  systems  —  Administration. 
3.  School  attendance.  4.  The  schools.  5.  Support  of  schools. 
6.  The  teachers. 


14  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER   XLVI 
BRIEF  SURVEY  OF  AMERICAN  EDUCATIONAL  HISTORY  ....    319 

I.   Early  Education.     2.   The  Law  of  1647.     3.   The  District  System. 

4.  The  County  System.       5.   The  Horn  Book.       6.    Higher  Education. 
7.   Academies.       8.   The  High  School.       9.   Colleges  and  Universities. 
10.    Normal  Schools. 

CHAPTER   XLVII 
RECENT  EDUCATIONAL  MOVEMENTS 329 

I.  The  National  Education  Association.      2.   The  National  Bureau  of 
Education.     3.   The  Quincy  Movement.     4.   The  Herbartian  Movement. 

5.  Child  Study.     6.   Parents'  Meetings.     7.  Manual  and  Industrial  Train- 
ing.    8.  Agriculture.      9.  Continuation  Schools.      10.   Medical  Inspec- 
tion of  Schools.      II.  The  Certificating  of  Teachers.      12.    Supervision. 
13.   State  Supervision.        14.   County  and  City  Supervision.        15.   The 
Montessori  Method. 


HISTORY   OF   EDUCATION 

CHAPTER   I 
INTRODUCTION 

THE  history  of  education  begins  with  the  childhood  of 
the  race,  and  traces  its  intellectual  development  step  by 
step  to  the  present  time.  As  such  history  is  academic  in 
character,  and  furnishes  information  concerning  the  edu- 
cational systems,  methods,  theories,  and  practices  of  the 
past,  it  should  be  placed  early  in  the  professional  peda- 
gogical course,  to  serve  as  the  foundation  for  an  improved 
educational  science  which  profits  by  the  experience  of 
mankind.  The  history  of  education  presents  many  of  the 
great  problems  that  have  interested  thoughtful  men,  shows 
how  some  of  these  have  been  solved,  and  points  the  way 
to  the  solution  of  others.  It  studies  educational  systems, 
selecting  the  good,  and  rejecting  the  bad,  and  introducing 
the  student  directly  to  the  pedagogical  questions  that  have 
influenced  the  world.  For  these  reasons,  the  study  of 
education  should  begin  with  its  history. 

Karl  Schmidt  says:  "The  history  of  the  world  is  the 
history  of  the  development  of  the  human  soul.  The  man- 
ner of  this  development  is  the  same  in  the  race  as  in  the 
individual ;  the  same  law,  because  the  same  divine  thought, 
rules  in  the  individual,  in  a  people,  and  in  humanity. 
Humanity  has,  as  the  individual,  its  stages  of  progress, 

15 


!6  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

and  it  unfolds  itself  in  them.  The  individual  as  a  child 
is  not  a  rational  being ;  he  becomes  rational.  The  child 
has  not  yet  the  mastery  over  himself,  but  his  environment 
is  his  master;  he  belongs  not  to  himself,  but  to  his  sur- 
roundings. The  oriental  peoples  are  the  child  of  humanity. 
.  .  .  Classical  antiquity  represents  the  period  of  youth  in 
the  history  of  the  world.  .  .  .  Christ  is  the  type  of  per- 
fected manhood.  The  history  of  the  individual  reflects 
and  repeats  the  history  of  humanity,  just  as  the  history 
of  humanity  is  a  reflection  of  the  history  of  the  Cosmos, 
and  the  history  of  the  Cosmos  is  an  image  of  the  life  of 
God ;  all  history,  be  it  that  of  humanity  or  of  the  indi- 
vidual, of  the  starry  heavens,  or  of  the  earth,  is  develop- 
ment of  life  toward  God."  "  Where  there  is  development, 
there  is  progress.  Progress  in  history  is  only  the  more  vis- 
ible, audible,  perceptible  embodiment  of  God  in  humanity."  1 
In  the  study  of  the  education  of  a  people  it  is  necessary 
first  to  become  acquainted  with  their  social,  political,  and 
religious  life.  To  this  end  a  knowledge  of  the  geography 
and  history  of  their  country  is  often  essential,  because 
of  the  influence  of  climate,  occupation,  and  environment, 
in  shaping  the  character  of  a  people.  Examples  of  this 
influence  are  not  wanting.  The  peculiar  position  of  the 
Persians,  surrounded  on  all  sides  by  enemies,  required  a 
martial  education  as  a  preparation  for  defensive  and  offen- 
sive measures.  Physical  education  was  dominant  among 
the  Spartans,  because  of  serfdom  which  involved  the  abso- 
lute control  of  the  many  by  the  few.  No  less  striking  are 
the  effects  of  physical  conditions  upon  all  peoples  in  stim- 
ulating mental  activity  and  in  developing  moral  life,  both 
of  which  processes  are  essential  to  true  education.  The 
intellectual  product  of  the  temperate  zone  differs  from  that 

1  "Geschichte  der  Padagogik,"  Vol.  I,  pp.  i,  2. 


INTRODUCTION  \j 

of  the  torrid  zone,  the  product  of  the  country  from  that 
of  the  large  city.  For  these  reasons  stress  is  here  laid 
upon  the  geographical  and  historical  conditions  of  the 
peoples  considered. 

For  the  same  purpose  we  must  study  the  home  and  the 
family,  the  foundations  upon  which  the  educational  struc- 
ture is  built.  The  ancient  Jew  looked  upon  children  as  the 
gift  of  God,  thereby  teaching  the  great  lesson  of  the 
divine  mission  of  children  and  of  the  parents'  responsi- 
bility for  their  welfare.  This  race  has  never  neglected 
the  home  education,  even  when  it  became  necessary  to 
establish  the  school.  The  family  was  the  nursery  of  edu- 
cation, and  only  when  diversified  duties  made  it  no  longer 
possible  to  train  the  children  properly  in  the  home  was 
the  school  established.  Even  then  the  purpose  of  the 
school  was  but  to  give  expression  to  demands  which  the 
home  created.  The  spirit  and  purpose  of  the  education 
of  a  people  can  be  understood  only  when  the  discipline, 
the  ideals,  and  the  religion  of  the  home  are  understood. 

When  we  have  learned  the  environment  of  a  people,  we 
are  ready  to  study  their  elementary  education.  This  takes 
us  into  the  schoolroom,  introduces  us  to  the  place  where 
the  school  is  held,  indicates  the  course  of  study  pursued, 
the  discipline,  methods  of  instruction,  spirit  and  training 
of  the  teacher,  as  well  as  the  results  obtained.  After  this 
we  are  ready  to  consider  the  higher  education,  which  com- 
pletes the  system  and  measures  its  efficiency. 

Another  task  demanded  of  the  student  is  to  draw  lessons 
from  the  educational  systems  studied,  to  note  what  can  be 
applied  to  modern  conditions,  and  to  avoid  the  errors  of 
the  past.  The  product  of  a  method,  as  shown  in  the  char- 
acter of  the  people  pursuing  it,  is  of  great  interest  in  esti- 
mal  'ng  the  value  of  a  scheme  of  education. 

HIST.   OF   ED. —  2 


18  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

Great  movements  have  often  been  the  outcome  of  the 
teachings  of  some  individual  who,  inspired  by  a  new  idea, 
has  consecrated  his  life  to  it.  Through  such  men  the 
world  receives  new  and  mighty  impulses  toward  its  en- 
lightenment, civilization  takes  vast  strides  in  its  develop- 
ment, and  man  approaches  nearer  his  final  emancipation. 
Confucius,  Socrates,  Augustine,  Charlemagne,  Luther, 
Bacon,  Comenius,  Pestalozzi,  Froebel,  are  names  that  sug- 
gest the  uplifting  of  humanity  and  the  betterment  of  the 
world.  The  study  of  the  lives  of  these  men,  of  their  vic- 
tories and  their  defeats,  cannot  fail  to  be  an  encouragement 
and  a  suggestive  lesson  to  teachers  of  all  lands  and  all  times. 
The  history  of  education  must  therefore  consider  the  biog- 
raphies of  such  men  as  well  as  their  theories  and  their 
teachings. 

Finally,  modern  systems  of  education  are  the  outgrowth 
of  the  experiences  of  the  past.  They  represent  the  results 
attained  and  indicate  present  educational  conditions.  Noth- 
ing can  better  summarize  the  total  development  reached, 
or  better  suggest  lines  of  future  progress  than  a  compara- 
tive discussion  of  the  leading  school  systems  of  the  world. 
The  last  chapters  of  this  book,  therefore,  are  devoted  to  a 
study  of  the  school  systems  of  Germany,  France,  England, 
and  America.  These  are  typical,  each  being  suggestive  of 
certain  phases  of  education,  while  one  of  them  has  largely 
influenced  the  education  of  several  other  countries.  Each 
furnishes  lessons  valuable  to  the  student  of  history.  Al- 
though many  practices  in  other  countries  may  not  be 
applicable  to  our  conditions,  the  broad-minded,  genuine 
patriot  will  not  refuse  to  accept  sound  principles  and 
good  methods  from  whatever  source  derived. 

It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  there  is  a  vital  distinction 
between  Education  and  Schooling.  Education  takes  into 


INTRODUCTION-  19 

account  all  those  forces  which  enter  into  the  civilization 
and  elevation  of  man,  whether  it  be  the  home,  the  school, 
the  state,  the  church,  the  influences  of  environment,  or 
all  these  combined.  It  is  a  continuous  process  which 
begins  at  birth  and  ceases  only  at  the  end  of  life.  By 
schooling  we  mean  the  educative  process  which  is  carried 
on  during  a  limited  period  of  the  child's  life  under  the 
guidance  of  teachers. 

The  school  is  a  product  of  civilization.  It  became 
necessary  because  of  the  division  of  labor  caused  by  the 
multiplication  of  the  interests  of  mankind  which  made  it 
impossible  for  the  home  to  continue  wholly  to  care  for  the 
training  of  its  children.  The  history  of  education  must 
not  merely  treat  of  the  development  of  the  school,  but  it 
must  consider  education  in  its  broader  meaning;  that  is, 
as  a  history  of  civilization.  For  this  reason  some  of  the 
great  educators  of  the  world  who  have  not  been  school 
teachers,  must  receive  consideration. 


CHAPTER   II 

CHINA 

Literature.  —  Martin,  The  Chinese  ;  Clarke,  Ten  Great  Religions  ; 
Houghton,  Women  of  the  Orient;  Doolittle,  Social  Life  of  the  Chi- 
nese ;  Johonnot,  Geographical  Reader ;  Lord,  Beacon  Lights  of  History  ; 
Ballon,  Due  West  and  Footprints  of  Travel ;  Ploetz,  Epitome  of  Uni- 
versal History;  Barnes,  Studies  in  Education;  Stoddard^s  Lectures; 
Pierre  Leroy-Beaulieu,  The  Awakening  of  the  East ;  McChire's  Maga- 
zine, December,  1900,  A  Character  Study  of  the  Chinaman ;  Ross,  The 
Changing  Chinese ;  Educational  Review,  Vol.  45 ;  Cascoyne,  Chang- 
ing China. 


The  civilization  of  the  "  Celestial  Empire  "  is,  with  the 
possible  exception  of  that  of  Egypt,  the  oldest  in  the 
world  And  yet,  it  has  contributed  but  little  to  the  ad- 
vancement of  mankind.  Their  system  of  education  has 
failed  to  stimulate  national  and  individual  progress,  has 
fostered  narrow  egotism,  and  has  excluded  external  sug- 
gestion. It  is  studied  rather  for  its  negative  lessons,  and 
therefore  suggests  practices  which  the  student  of  educa- 
tion will  do  well  to  avoid.  The  result  in  China  furnishes 
the  best  argument  against  a  method  of  instruction  that 
appeals  solely  to  the  memory.  This  alone  is  sufficient 
reason  for  a  study  of  Chinese  education,  aside  from  its 
strange  and  unique  characteristics  which  never  fail  to 
interest  the  reader. 

Geography  and  History.  —  The  Chinese  Empire  occu- 
pies a  position  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Asiatic  continent 
within  about  the  same  parallels  of  latitude  as  the  United 
States,  extending  from  twenty  degrees  latitude  on  the  south 
to  fifty-three  degrees  on  the  north.  Its  area  is  about  four 
and  a  quarter  million  square  miles,  being  somewhat  larger 

20 


CHINA  21 

than  that  of  the  United  States.  Its  population  is  estimated 
at  about  six  times  that  of  our  country.  It  has  an  abundance 
of  rivers,  intersected  by  numerous  canals,  which  greatly 
facilitate  internal  commerce.  Many  parts  of  the  country 
are  densely  populated.  The  people  are  largely  engaged 
in  agriculture.  Tea  and  silk  are  the  chief  articles  of  ex- 
port, while  rice  and  millet  form  the  principal  food. 

The  Chinese  belong  to  the  Mongolian  or  yellow  race. 
They  are  an  industrious,  frugal,  and  temperate  people, 
though  the  opium  habit  is  very  general  and  is  disastrous 
in  its  effects.  Doubtless  the  overcrowded  population, 
which  has  driven  many  to  live  in  boats  and  in  crowded 
apartments,  has  had  much  to  do  in  molding  the  Chinese 
character.  Until  recently  they  have  been  slow  to  admit 
modern  improvements  and  are  conservative  in  the  main- 
tenance of  their  customs,  religion,  education,  and  social 
practices.  Consequently,  they  have  for  many  centuries 
made  but  little  progress.  Their  authentic  history  covers, 
according  to  extant  records,  a  period  of  nearly  four 
thousand  years.  Until  recently  the  government  was  an 
absolute  monarchy,  and  the  emperor  was  regarded  as  the 
father  of  all  his  people  and  had  supreme  power  over  the 
lives  of  his  subjects.  The  monarchy  has  now  been  over- 
thrown and  a  republic  established.  This  is  an  experiment 
that  is  being  watched  with  interest  by  all  civilized  nations, 
and  the  success  of  the  experiment  must  be  regarded  as 
problematical.  A  republic,  necessarily,  is  based  on  the  in- 
telligence, patriotism,  and  public  spirit  of  its  citizenship. 
The  great  mass  of  the  Chinese  people  have  little  interest 
in  public  affairs  and  most  of  the  Chinese  have  no  compre- 
hension of  what  a  free  government  means.  They  have 
been  governed  by  a  despotispi  for  centuries,  have  had  no 
part  in  public  affairs,  and  are  so  accustomed  to  follow  tra- 


22  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

dition  that  the  great  step  towards  universal  freedom  is 
quite  beyond  their  comprehension.  Therefore,  the  result 
is  problematical.  It  must  be  admitted,  however,  that  the 
leaders  of  the  revolution  have  taken  wise  measures  to  pre- 
pare the  people  for  the  change,  measures  that  were  intro- 
duced even  before  the  political  change  was  effected.  The 
wisest  and  surest  of  these  measures  is  that  involved  in  the 
new  educational  system.  I  shall  present  the  historic  con- 
dition of  education  as  it  still  practically  exists  and  later 
point  out  the  reforms  that  are  under  way. 

The  Chinese  language  contains  no  alphabet ;  each  sym- 
bol represents  a  different  word ;  the  substantives  are  inde- 
clinable, and  the  verbs  are  without  inflection.  It  thus 
becomes  necessary  in  mastering  the  language  to  learn 
by  rote  a  vast  number  of  signs  and  characters,  —  a  pro- 
digious feat  for  the  memory. 

The  religion  most  widespread  among  the  Chinese 
is  Buddhism  (which  was  imported  from  India),  though 
ancestor  worship  is  still  universal.  Women  are  the  princi- 
pal worshipers,  yet  the  Chinese  believe  that  women  have  no 
souls.  The  belief  in  transmigration  of  souls  is  implicit,  and 
this  is  used  to  keep  woman  in  a  most  degraded  condition.  If 
a  woman  is  obedient  to  her  husband  and  his  relatives,  and  is 
the  mother  of  sons,  she  may  hope  to  return  to  this  world,  in 
the  future,  as  a  man,  and  thus  have  a  chance  ultimately  to 
reach  Buddha's  heaven.  The  belief  in  the  transmigration 
of  souls  explains  the  vegetarian  diet  of  the  Buddhist.  No 
zealous  Buddhist  will  touch  meat  or  even  eggs,  neither  will 
he  kill  the  smallest  insect,  lest  he  should  thus  inadvertently 
murder  a  relative.1  The  men  care  but  little  for  any  religion 
beyond  a  veneration  for  their  ancestors.  Lately  there  is  a 
movement  to  reestablish  the  Confucian  religion. 

1  Mrs.  E.  E.  Baldwin,  Foochow,  China. 


CHINA  .  23 

Polygamy  is  very  generally  practiced,  the  limit  to  the 
number  of  wives  being  determined  by  the  ability  to  support 
them.  Women  usually  become  more  religious  as  they 
advance  in  years,  and  they  spend  much  time  in  worship- 
ing in  the  temples.  It  is  they  who  preserve  the  national 
religion  and  make  most  difficult  the  work  of  mission- 
aries.1 

The  Home.  —  The  wife  exists  only  for  the  comfort  of  her 
husband.  It  is  her  duty  to  serve  and  obey  him.  If  she 
abuses  her  husband,  she  receives  one  hundred  stripes ; 
but  abuse  from  him  is  not  a  punishable  offense.  Instruc- 
tion, at  home  as  well  as  at  school,  is  confined  to  boys. 
The  birth  of  a  boy  is  indicated  by  hanging  a  bow  and 
arrow  over  the  door ;  that  of  a  girl,  by  a  spindle  and  yarn. 
In  naming  the  number  of  his  children,  the  father  counts 
only  the  boys.  Boys  are  clothed  in  the  finest  material  the 
family  can  afford ;  girls,  in  rags.  Parents  may  destroy 
their  children,  but  only  girls  are  ever  sacrificed.  The 
mother  can  seldom  read  and  write,  her  chief  duty  being 
to  instill  into  her  children  the  two  cardinal  Chinese  virtues 
— politeness  and  obedience.  The  relation  of  parents  and 
children  is  the  highest  and  purest  representation  of  the 
relation  between  the  Creator  and  the  creature,  and  to  ven- 
erate the  parents  is  the  first  and  holiest  of  all  duties, 
higher  than  the  love  of  wife  to  husband,  higher  than  the 
reverence  for  the  emperor ;  therefore  the  emperor's  father 
cannot  be  his  subject. 

To  the  Chinaman  all  other  duties  are  included  in  filial 
duties.  The  bringing  up  of  the  children  is  left  almost 
entirely  to  the  mother.  The  training  begins  very  early, 
and  great  stress  is  laid  upon  obedience.  Disobedience  is 
a  crime  punishable  by  the  father  with  death. 

1  Houghton,  "  Women  of  the  Orient,"  p.  14. 


24  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

There  are  no  illustrated  children's  books,  no  nursery 
rhymes  to  inspire  the  imagination,  none  of  the  bright  and 
useful  things  so  necessary  to  a  happy  childhood.  The 
child  grows  up  with  but  few  playthings  calculated  to  stim- 
ulate the  powers  of  the  mind. 

The  Elementary  School.  —  At  about  six  or  seven  years 
of  age  the  child  enters  school.  Sometimes  a  few  parents 
unite  to  employ  a  teacher  for  their  children.  The  govern- 
ment has  no  concern  for  the  qualifications  of  the  teacher ; 
no  license  to  teach  is  required,  there  is  no  governmental 
inspection  or  control,  nor  does  the  State  assume  any 
part  of  the  expense  of  the  school.  Attendance  is  not 
compulsory,  and  yet  male  education  is  so  universal  that 
scarcely  a  boy  can  be  found  who  does  not  enjoy  opportuni- 
ties for  education.  Charity  schools  are  furnished  by  the 
wealthy  for  those  who  cannot  afford  to  contribute  toward 
the  maintenance  of  a  school. 

There  are  no  public  schoolhouses.  The  school  is  some- 
times held  in  the  temple,  sometimes  in  the  home  of  the 
schoolmaster,  and  sometimes  in  the  home  of  a  wealthy 
patron.  The  furniture  of  the  schoolroom  consists  of  an 
altar  consecrated  to  Confucius  and  the  god  of  knowledge, 
a  desk  and  a  chair  for  the  teacher,  and  the  pupils'  desks 
and  stools,  provided  by  the  children  themselves.  No  effort 
is  made  to  render  the  room  attractive. 

The  child  is  admitted  the  first  time  with  much  cere- 
mony in  order  that  the  day  may  be  one  of  pleasant 
memories.  He  also  receives  a  new  name,  the  name  of 
his  babyhood  being  dropped.  Indeed,  a  change  of  name 
accompanies  each  new  epoch  of  his  life,  as  the  time  he 
takes  a  new  degree,  the  day  of  his  marriage,  etc.  Thus 
the  boy  enters  upon  his  new  work.  The  first  years  of 
study  are  devoted  to  reading,  writing,  and  the  elements 


CHINA  25 

of  arithmetic,  which  studies  complete  the  education  of 
the  majority  of  the  pupils.  No  effort  is  made  to  in- 
terest the  child ;  he  is  simply  required  to  memorize  and 
write  as  many  as  possible  of  the  fifty  thousand  charac- 
ters. Not  until  after  the  names  of  the  characters  have 
been  learned  by  rote  is  there  any  effort  to  teach  the 
meaning  of  the  words  which  they  represent.  The  child's 
writing,  too,  is  mechanical,  for  the  expression  of  thought 
is  but  a  secondary  consideration.  Thought  awakening 
is  not  encouraged  in  the  Chinese  course  of  education. 
Fear,  not  interest,  is  the  motive  which  drives  the  child  to 
study.  Memory  is  the  chief  faculty  to  be  cultivated,  and 
each  child  vies  with  the  others  to  make  the  most  noise  in 
study. 

The  teacher  is  greatly  revered,  only  less  so  than  the 
father.  His  discipline  is  rigid,  the  rod  not  being  spared. 
There  are  no  new  methods  to  learn ;  the  practice  to- 
day is  the  same  as  that  of  hundreds  of  years  ago ;  it  con- 
sists simply  in  hearing  what  the  children  have  learned 
by  heart. 

The  second  stage  of  study  consists  of  translations 
from  text-books  and  lessons  in  composition.  This  work 
brings  some  pleasure  to  the  child,  as  it  is  a  little  less 
mechanical.  The  third  stage  consists  of  belles-lettres 
and  essay  writing.  Only  a  few  ever  reach  this  stage, 
and  the  purpose  of  this  advanced  work  is  not  intel- 
lectual development,  or  even  the  accumulation  of  knowl- 
edge, but  to  prepare  for  a  position  under  the  govern- 
ment, which  can  be  reached  by  no  other  means.  Even 
in  these  last  two  stages  of  study  memory  is  the  prin- 
cipal faculty  brought  into  play.  Without  great  ex- 
ercise of  this  power  the  vast  amount  of  material  can 
never  be  mastered. 


26  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

Higher  Education. — There  are  no  high  schools,  but 
men  who  have  taken  degrees  gather  about  them  young 
students,  who  are  to  devote  themselves  to  study,  and 
give  them  instruction  in  the  Chinese  classics  and  pre- 
pare them  for  the  State  examinations  for  degrees.  Great 
attention  is  paid  to  style,  and  in  order  to  cultivate  a 
good  style,  students  are  required  to  commit  to  memory 
many  of  the  productions  of  their  classical  authors.  They 
write  a  great  many  essays  and  verses,  which  are  criti- 
cised by  their  teachers.  The  attention  is  confined  solely 
to  the  Chinese  classics.  The  educated  Chinaman  is  usually 
ignorant  of  any  field  of  knowledge  not  embraced  in  his 
own  literature. 

There  is  in  the  royal  library  at  Pekin  a  catalogue 
consisting  of  one  hundred  and  twelve  octavo  volumes 
of  three  hundred  pages  each,  containing  the  titles  of 
twelve  thousand  works,  with  short  extracts  of  their 
contents.  These  works  treat  of  science,  medicine,  as- 
tronomy, and  philosophy,  while  history  has  an  especially 
rich  literature.  The  Chinese  knew  how  to  observe  the 
heavens  four  thousand  years  ago,  and  yet  were  unable 
to  construct  a  calendar  without  the  help  of  the  Euro- 
peans. They  invented  gunpowder,  the  mariner's  com- 
pass, porcelain,  bells,  playing  cards,  and  the  art  of 
printing  long  before  they  were  used  in  Europe,  yet 
they  lacked  the  ability  to  use  these  inventions  as  in- 
struments to  their  advancement. 

China  is  divided  into  provinces  which  are  subdivided 
into  districts.      Candidates  must  pass  three  examinations 
in  their  own  district  and   those  who   are   successful  re-   , 
ceive   the   lowest   degree,    that   of    "  Budding   Intellect. 'V 
Many  thousands  enter  for  this   degree,   but   only  about 
one  per  cent  succeed  in  attaining  it.     The  possession  of 


CHINA  27 

this  degree  does  not  yet  entitle  the  holder  to  a  public 
office,  but  most  of  those  who  have  secured  it  become 
teachers,  physicians,  lawyers,  etc.  Once  in  three  years 
there  is  another  examination  for  the  second  degree,  called 
"  Deserving  of  Promotion,"  conducted  by  an  examiner  sent1' 
from  Pekin.  A  third  examination  is  also  held  once  every 
three  years,  in  Pekin,  and  success  in  this  is  rewarded 
by  the  title  "Fit  for  Office."  Holders  of  the  last  two 
degrees  are  entitled  to  an  appointment  to  some  office,  the 
highest  aim  of  a  Chinaman.  All  of  these  examinations 
are  conducted  with  great  strictness  and  fairness,  no  one 
being  excluded.  Thus  every  Chinese  child  of  ability  has 
the  opportunity  to  reach  the  highest  positions  in  the  • 
country. 

There  is  a  still  higher  degree  called  the  "  Forest  of  \s 
Pencils,"  which  is  open  only  to  members  of  the  Royal 
Academy,  the  Hanlin.  The  acquirement  of  this  degree 
is  the  greatest  honor  to  be  attained;  its  possessor  is 
highly  esteemed,  and  may  hold  the  highest  offices  in  the 
country. 

The  New  Movement.  —  The  foregoing  is  a  description  of 
education  in  China  as  it  has  existed  for  centuries.  In  1905 
an  edict  was  promulgated  abolishing  the  ancient  system  of 
examinations  around  which  the  whole  scheme  centered, 
and  establishing  a  modern  system.  Wonderful  progress 
has  already  been  made  according  to  P.  W.  Kuo,  ex-Pres- 
ident of  the  Chinese  Students'  Alliance  in  America.1  He 
says  :  "  At  the  dawn  of  the  revolution  the  attitude  of  China 
toward  improving  her  educational  system  in  modern  lines 
was  not  at  all  equivocal  and  that  modern  education  had 
come  to  China  to  stay  and  to  exercise  its  influence  over  the 
life  of  the  nation  as  well  as  that  of  the  people."  The  re- 

1 "  Educational  Review,"  Vol.  45. 


28  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

port  of  the  Minister  of  Education  shows  that  already  in 
1910  there  were  in  China  52,650  schools  of  different  types, 
including  normal,  vocational,  and  technical  schools  with 
a  student  body  numbering  1,625,534,  a  teaching  corps 
numbering  89,766,  and  corps  of  administrative  officers 
numbering  95,800.  When  one  recalls  that  China  has  a 
population  of  four  hundred  millions,  even  this  beginning  can 
represent  only  a  small  fraction  of  the  people. 

A  Chinese  Alphabet.  —  We  have  seen  that  a  mastery  of 
the  Chinese  language  is  very  difficult  on  account  of  the 
absence  of  an  alphabet,  it  being  necessary  to  commit  to 
memory  a  vast  number  of  independent  symbols  in  learning 
the  language.  An  alphabet  of  forty-six  letters  has  been 
adopted,  which  is  one  of  the  most  revolutionary  and  im- 
portant steps  in  the  educational  reform  yet  taken. 

China's  Modern  System.  —  The  new  system  as  it  now 
stands  may  be  briefly  described  as  follows :  At  the  head  of 
all  educational  affairs  is  a  Minister  of  Education,  who  is 
assisted  by  inspectors  and  experts  in  the  various  fields  of 
educational  endeavor.  "  The  work  of  the  ministry  is  appor- 
tioned to  one  general  council  and  three  bureaus,  the  coun- 
cil having  charge  of  teachers  in  the  public  schools,  educa- 
tional associations,  investigations  and  compilations,  school 
hygiene,  repair  and  building  of  school  library,  school 
museum,  and  educational  exhibits.  The  three  bureaus  are 
as  follows :  I,  general  education  ;  2,  technical  or  profes- 
sional education ;  and  3,  social  education,"  each  of  which 
has  a  specific  field  of  activity. 

The  general  plan  of  schools  is  as  follows :  "  Primary 
elementary  school,  four  years,  ages  6-9 ;  higher  elementary 
school,  three  years,  ages  10-12  ;  middle  school,  four  years, 
ages  13-16;  college  preparatory,  three  years,  ages  17-19; 
and  college  proper,  three  to  four  years,  according  to  the 


CHINA  29 

nature  of  the  course,  ages  20-22  or  23.  It  also  provides 
two  types  of  normal  schools,  the  normal  school  with  a 
course  of  four  years,  and  one  year  of  preparatory  course, 
ages  13-17;  and  the  higher  normal  having  a  course  of 
three  years  and  one  year  of  preparatory  course,  ages  17- 
20." 

Thus  it  is  possible  to  go  through  the  entire  course  from 
the  primary  school  till  the  completion  of  the  university  in 
fifteen  or  sixteen  years  as  against  twenty-three  years  under 
the  old  system.  The  whole  conception  of  the  aim  of  ed- 
ucation has  changed  from  that  of  the  inculcation  of  loyalty 
to  the  emperor  and  veneration  for  Confucius  to  the  cultiva- 
tion of  virtuous  life  and  the  building  of  moral  character. 
"  General  education  aims  at  spreading  modern  knowledge 
to  all  young  nationals  in  order  that  they  may  be  qualified 
for  citizenship,"  a  conception  utterly  lacking  in  the  old 
education. 

The  Hanlin  Academy,  for  centuries  the  summit  of  the 
educational  system,  has  been  abolished  and  the  Pekin 
University  established.  China  sends  many  students  abroad 
to  absorb  new  ideas  and  catch  the  spirit  of  modern  educa- 
tion, a  practice  that  also  is  revolutionary,  for  China  was 
cloaked  in  self-satisfaction  and  held  in  supreme  contempt 
all  learning  and  civilization  outside  of  her  own  boundaries. 

Mr.  Kuo  says,  "  The  problem  of  supplying  educational 
facilities  to  China's  millions  is  so  gigantic  in  its  scope  and 
so  complicated  in  its  character,  that  it  calls  for  not  only 
the  highest  professional  skill,  but  a  great  deal  of  enthusi- 
asm, patriotism,  and  altruism  for  its  successful  solution. 
The  system  existing  to-day,  being  still  in  its  infancy,  is 
naturally  full  of  imperfections  and  has  plenty  of  room  for 
improvement,  especially  when  it  is  compared  with  the 
systems  of  other  enlightened  nations,  most  of  which  have 


30  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

taken  centuries  of  adjustment  and  toil  before  reaching  their 
present  stage  of  excellence,  and  even  they  still  have  room 
for  improvement.  New  China,  however,  is  confident  that, 
given  sufficient  time,  she  will  be  able  to  work  out  her  own 
salvation  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  problem  is  fraught 
with  difficulties." 

Criticism  of  Chinese  Education.  —  As  the  new  system 
has  not  yet  been  established  long  enough  to  bear  fruit, 
and  as  it  still  reaches  only  a  few,  comparatively,  we  must 
consider  the  results  that  follow  the  old  scheme  under  which 
the  great  mass  of  living  Chinese  were  taught  and  whose 
influence  must  still  be  felt  for  a  long  time  to  come.  The 
new  educational  system  should  ultimately  correct  many  of 
these  typical  faults,  but  it  will  take  several  generations  to 
accomplish  this  purpose. 

1.  Chinese  education  takes  little  account  of  literature, 
art,   science,  or  other  knowledge  outside  of  that  distinc- 
tively her  own. 

2.  It   has   been    nonprogressive,    making  no   improve- 
ments for  many  centuries. 

3.  It  cultivates  the  memory  to  the  neglect  of  the  other 
powers  of  the  mind,  and  places  more  emphasis  on  the  ac- 
quirement of  facts  than  on  the  development  of  the  human 
faculties. 

4.  It   obtains   its  results  through  fear,  rather  than  by 
awakening  an  interest  in  or  love  for  study. 

5.  It  gives  little  attention  to  the  education  of  girls  and 
regards  woman  as  inferior  to  man. 

6.  Its  incentive  is  not  love  of  learning,  but  a  preparation 
for  lucrative  office  under  the  government. 

7.  It  produces  a  conservative,  untruthful,  and  nonpro- 
gressive people. 

8.  The  adoption  of  an  alphabet   should   simplify   the 


CHINA  31 

language  and  make  learning  much  less  a  memorizing  ac- 
tivity. 

9.  The  establishment  of  normal  schools  is  a  recognition 
of  the  necessity  of  trained  teachers  and  of  the  existence  of 
an  educational  philosophy,  which  has  always  been  lacking 
in  Chinese  education,  and  indeed,  unnecessary  so  long  as 
learning  was  a  mere  memory  process. 

CONFUCIUS  (B.C.  550-478) 

The  name  of  Confucius  is  the  one  most  revered  among 
the  Chinese.  To  him  and  his  disciples  are  due  not  only 
the  native  religion,  now  supplanted  by  Buddhism,  but 
also  the  language  and  literature.  He  began  to  teach  in 
a  private  school  at  the  age  of  twenty-two.  He  rejected  no 
pupil  of  ability  and  ambition,  but  accepted  none  without 
these  qualities.  He  said,  "  When  I  have  presented  one 
corner  of  a  subject,  and  the  pupil  cannot  make  out  the 
other  three,  I  do  not  repeat  the  lesson." 

Confucius  taught  his  pupils  knowledge,  good  behavior, 
fidelity,  and  uprightness  of  character.  He  divided  them 
into  four  classes,  in  which  the  aim  sought  was  as  follows : 
in  the  first  class  the  mind  was  trained  by  reflection,  and  the 
heart  through  the  practice  of  virtues ;  in  the  second,  correct 
and  fluent  speech  was  sought ;  in  the  third,  the  science  of 
government ;  in  the  fourth,  a  practical  and  theoretical  con- 
sideration of  morals.  The  main  purpose  of  education  with 
Confucius  was  to  bring  man  back  to  the  primitive  purity 
and  simplicity  of  the  first  man.  Karl  Schmidt  says  of  him, 
"  Confucius  was  a  moral  genius."  It  is  no  wonder  that  he 
has  exerted  such  a  profound  influence  upon  the  Chinese 
people  for  nearly  twenty-five  centuries. 

The  following  are  extracts  from  the  analects  of  Confu- 
cius :  — 


32  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

1.  What   you   do  not   like  when  done   to   yourself,  do 
not  to  others. 

2.  Learning   without    thought    is    labor  lost ;    thought 
without  learning  is  perilous. 

3.  To  see  what   is   right  and    not    do    it   is    want    of 
courage. 

4.  Worship  as  if  the  Deity  were  present. 

5.  Three    friendships    are     advantageous :     friendship 
with  the  upright,  friendship  with  the  sincere,  and  friend- 
ship with  the  man  of  observation.     Three  are  injurious : 
friendship  with  a  man  of  spurious  airs,  friendship  with  the 
insinuatingly  soft,  and  friendship  with  the  glib-tongued. 

6.  Shall  I  tell   you   what   knowledge  is?     When  you 
know  a  thing,  to  hold  that  you  know  it ;  and  when  you  do 
not  know  a  thing,  to  confess  your  ignorance. 


CHAPTER   III 

INDIA 

Literature. — Marshman,  History  of  India;  Ragozin,  Vedic  India; 
Spofford,  Library  of  Historical  Characters ;  Butler,  Land  of  the  Veda ; 
Houghton,  Women  of  the  Orient ;  Clarke,  Ten  Great  Religions  ;  Johon- 
not,  Geographical  Reader ;  Macaulay,  Essays ;  Ballou,  Footprints  of 
Travel;  Stoddard^s  Lectures;  Arnold,  Light  of  Asia;  Chamberlain, 
Education  in  India ;  Dutt,  The  Civilization  of  India. 


Geography  and  History.  —  India  lies  between  the  sixth 
and  thirty-sixth  parallels  of  north  latitude.  It  is  bordered 
on  the  north  by  the  Himalayas  and  on  the  south  by  the 
Indian  ocean.  The  climate  in  general  is  hot,  which 
makes  the  natives  indolent  and  accounts  for  their  lack  of 
enterprise.  The  country  is  very  rich,  the  chief  products 
being  wheat,  cotton,  rice,  opium,  and  tea.  The  area  is 
about  one  and  a  half  million  square  miles,  and  the  popula- 
tion two  hundred  millions. 

The  early  history  of  India  is  obscure,  as  the  Brahmans, 
from  religious  scruples,  have  ever  been  opposed  to  historical 
records.  It  is  certain  that  there  was  an  aboriginal  race 
which  occupied  the  country  from  an  unknown  period,  and 
that  a  branch  of  the  Aryan  *  or  Indo-Germanic  race  came 

1  The  Aryans  are  supposed  to  have  originally  occupied  the  country  east  of 
the  Caspian  Sea,  though  some  authorities  locate  them  north  of  it.  The 
branches  of  this  race  are  the  Hindus,  Persians,  Greeks,  Romans,  Celts,  Teu- 
tons, and  Slavs.  These  branches  are  related  in  language  and  color,  and  the 
peoples  that  find  their  common  origin  in  the  Aryans  represent  a  large  part  of 
the  world's  enterprise  and  progress. 

HIST.    OF   ED.  —  3  33 


34  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

to  India  and  struggled  for  supremacy.  The  Aryans  suc- 
ceeded in  reducing  the  natives  to  subjection  or  in  driv- 
ing them  into  the  mountains.  The  comparatively  pure 
descendants  of  these  races  are  about  equal  in  number  in 
India,  their  mixed  progeny  composing  the  great  mass  of 
the  Hindu  population.  The  Sanskrit  was  their  classic 
language,  and  the  Veda  their  Bible. 

The  Caste  System.  —  There  are  four  great  castes  in 
India  :  — 

1.  The  Brahmans,  or  highest  caste,  who  are  the  priests, 
scholars,  lawyers,  physicians,  teachers,  etc.     This  order  is 
highly  reverenced  by  the  lower  castes,  and  its  members  are 
dignified,  abstemious,  and  sedate.     Their  highest  ideal  is 
to  bring  their  desires  and  appetites  under  complete  con- 
trol.    They  exercise  great  influence  in  the  land.1 

2.  The  warriors,  who  comprise  the  army  and  the  office 
holders. 

3.  The  merchants,  mechanics,  and  farmers,  who  consti- 
tute the  bone  and  sinew  of  India. 

4.  The  servants,  who  receive  no  education  excepting  in 
matters  of   politeness  and   other   things   connected   with 
their  station  in  life. 

Each  caste  must  pay  respect  to  the  higher  castes,  and 
association  with  persons  of  a  lower  caste  is  considered  a 
degradation.  The  English  government  of  India  does  not 
interfere  with  the  caste  system,  but  it  is  gradually  break- 
ing down. 

Besides  the  above-mentioned  castes,  there  are  trades- 
men's castes  which  have  grown  up  as  new  occupations 
have  been  introduced.  Thus  there  is  a  potters'  caste,  a 
weavers'  caste,  a  carpenters'  caste,  etc.,  each  son  following 
his  father's  trade.  This  accounts  for  the  marvelous  skill 

1  See  article  in  Johonnot's  "  Geographical  Reader,"  p.  197. 


INDIA  35 

of  the  craftsmen  of  India  in  weaving  carpets  and  fine 
muslins,  in  metal  work,  and  other  arts,  —  workmanship 
not  equaled  anywhere  else  in  the  world. 

Brahmanism  and  Mohammedanism  are  the  chief  reli- 
gions. Buddhism  overran  the  country  in  the  fifth  and  sixth 
centuries  B.C.,  but  it  did  not  seem  to  be  suited  to  the  Hindus, 
and  now  it  is  found  in  its  purity  only  in  Ceylon.  Unlike 
the  Chinese,  the  Hindus  are  a  very  religious  people.  The 
Shastas1  declare  that  "  when  in  the  presence  of  her  husband, 
a  woman  must  keep  her  eyes  upon  her  master,  and  be 
ready  to  receive  his  commands.  When  he  speaks,  she 
must  be  quiet  and  listen  to  nothing  besides.  When  he 
calls,  she  must  leave  everything  else  and  attend  upon  him 
alone.  A  woman's  husband  is  her  god,  her  priest,  and 
her  religion.  The  most  excellent  work  that  she  can  per- 
form is  to  gratify  him  with  the  strictest  obedience."  2  The 
system  of  sale  of  girls  at  birth,  for  wives,  of  early  be- 
trothal and  marriage,  of  perpetual  widowhood  under  most 
degrading  circumstances,3  and  the  practice  of  polygamy 
make  the  condition  of  woman  in  India  still  worse  than  in 
China. 

The  English  now  rule  the  country  with  such  wisdom 
and  justice  that  the  people  are  generally  contented  and 
loyal.  Reforms  have  been  introduced,  commerce  has  been 
established,  improvements  have  been  made,  and  new  life 
has  been  awakened.  They  have  also  established  schools 
and  universities ;  but  as  the  purpose  here  is  to  give  a  pic- 

1  A  commentary  on  the  sacred  book,  the  Veda  of  the  Hindus. 

2  Houghton,  "  Women  of  the  Orient,"  p.  34. 

3  A  betrothed  girl  becomes  a  widow  upon  the  death  of  her  promised  hus- 
band even  though  she  be  only  two  or  three  years  old  and  may  never  have 
seen  him.      She    must    always    remain  a  widow,  and  as  such  is  constantly 
humiliated. 


36  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION- 

ture  of  the  caste  education,  the  English  system  will  not  be 
described. 

The  Home.  —  Woman  has  no  educational  advantages  in 
India,  and  she  is  regarded  more  as  the  servant  than  as  the 
equal  of  her  husband.  She  may  never  appear  uninvited 
in  the  presence  of  any  man  except  her  husband.  This 
has  worked  great  hardships  for  her,  especially  in  cases  of 
sickness,  as  she  can  have  no  medical  attendance  unless  a 
female  medical  missionary  can  be  reached.  This  fact  has 
opened  a  fertile  field  for  missionary  enterprise  which  has 
been  a  great  blessing  to  Hindu  women. 

A  member  of  a  caste  may  marry  in  his  own  or  in  a 
lower  caste ;  thus  the  Brahman  may  have  four  wives,  the 
warrior  three,  the  farmer  two,  and  the  servant  one. 

Parents  love  their  children,  and  expect  of  them  unques- 
tioning obedience.  Children  are  taught  to  love  and  honor 
their  teachers  even  more  than  their  parents.  They  are 
taught  to  reverence  and  respect  older  persons  under  all 
circumstances.  Contrary  to  the  Chinese  idea  of  educa- 
tion, which  is  to  prepare  for  this  life,  the  Hindu  idea  is 
to  prepare  for  the  future  life,  and  children  in  the  home, 
from  their  earliest  years,  are  trained  with  reference  to 
this  idea. 

The  Elementary  School.  —  All  teachers  belong  to  the 
Brahman  caste.  They  receive  no  salary,  depending  upon 
gifts  for  their  support.  They  are  mild  in  discipline,  and 
generally  humane  in  their  treatment  of  their  pupils.  The 
instruction  is  given  under  trees  in  the  open  air  on  pleasant 
days,  and  in  a  tent  or  shed  when  the  weather  is  bad.  In- 
struction is  given  in  reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic, 
though  religion  constitutes  the  principal  theme.  Memoriz- 
ing the  holy  sayings  of  Brahma  occupies  a  large  portion 
of  the  time.  While  the  Chinaman  worships  nature  and 


INDIA  37 

his  ancestors,  the  Hindu  worships  Brahma.  The  cultiva- 
tion of  the  memory  is  considered  important,  but  by  no 
means  so  essential  as  in  the  Chinese  system. 

The  reading  lessons  are  from  the  Veda.  In  writing,  the 
child  begins  by  forming  characters  in  sand  with  his  finger 
or  a  stick,  then  he  writes  upon  leaves,  and  finally  upon 
paper,  with  ink.  The  work  in  arithmetic  is  very  elemen- 
tary, being  only  such  as  will  fit  the  learners  for  practical 
life.  Servants  and  girls  are  excluded  from  even  this  limited 
education. 

M.  Ida  Dean  says :  "  How  amused  you  would  be  if  you 
could  take  a  peep  at  a  school  in  India  taught  by  a  native 
teacher.  The  school  is  often  held  in  an  open  shed,  and 
no  pains  whatever  is  taken  to  keep  it  clean.*  Often  the 
rafters  are  festooned  with  cobwebs  and  dirt.  Of  furniture, 
save  the  teacher's  low  desk,  there  is  none.  The  teacher 
uses  a  grass  mat,  while  the  boys  sit  cross-legged  on  the 
earthen  floor.  The  teacher,  in  a  singsong  voice,  reads  a 
sentence  which  the  boys  shout  after  him.  Then  another 
sentence  is  read,  which  the  pupils  likewise  shout  in  a  sing- 
song voice,  while  their  bodies  sway  to  and  fro.  This  goes 
on  until  sentence  after  sentence  is  memorized.  No  one 
knows  nor  cares  what  he  is  saying.  The  teacher  never 
explains.  Neither  teacher  nor  pupil  is  ever  bothered  by 
that  troublesome  and  inquisitive  little  word  why" 

The  castes  are  taught  separately,  and  especial  attention 
is  given  to  such  instruction  as  will  fit  them  for  their  station 
in  life.  The  highest  virtues  to  be  cultivated  are  politeness, 
patience,  modesty,  and  truthfulness.  Morning,  noon,  and 
evening  there  are  impressive  religious  ceremonies  in  the 
school,  and  the  pupils  must  throw  themselves  at  the  feet 
of  their  teacher  with  reverential  respect.  There  is  no 
theory  of  education  among  the  Hindus,  each  teacher  in- 


881UV 


38  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

structing  as  he  pleases,  according  to  historic  custom. 
This  precludes  any  considerable  improvement  in  method 
or  advance  in  the  art  of  education.  There  is  no  authority 
to  decide  upon  qualifications  of  teachers,  the  only  essential 
requisite  being  that  they  shall  belong  to  the  Brahman 
caste. 

Higher  Education. — The  Brahmans  are  the  only  edu- 
cated class,  although  warriors  attend  their  schools  for  the 
purpose  of  such  study  as  is  necessary  in  connection  with 
their  calling.  The  farmer  caste,  too,  may  attend  the 
Brahman  schools  to  learn  the  studies  pertaining  to  their 
caste.  They  pursue  in  their  schools  the  study  of  grammar, 
mathematics,  astronomy,  philosophy,  medicine,  law,  litera- 
ture, and  religion.  Many  of  them  still  speak  their  classic 
language,  the  Sanskrit.  As  their  religion  is  based  on 
philosophy,  this  study  takes  precedence  over  all  others. 

"The  Hindus  are  believed  to  have  originated  the 
decimal  system  of  arithmetical  notation  which  has  been 
transmitted  to  us  through  Arabian  channels."1 

The  end  of  Hindu  wisdom  is  to  rise  above  all  human 
suffering  through  knowledge.  Wuttke  says,  "  Christians 
pray,  '  Thy  Kingdom  come ' ;  the  Chinese,  '  Thy  King- 
dom remain ' ;  the  Hindus,  '  Let  whatever  thou  hast  created 
pass  away.' " 

Criticism  of  Hindu  Education.  —  i.  It  is  not  universal, 
a  large  part  of  the  people  being  excluded  from  its  benefits. 

2.  It  is  based  on  castes  and  the   promulgation  of  the 
caste  system,  which  is  baneful. 

3.  It   depends   too   much   upon  the  cultivation  of   the 
memory. 

4.  It  has  no  philosophy  of  education,   and,  therefore, 
is  non-progressive. 

1  Williams,  "  History  of  Modern  Education." 


INDIA  39 

5.  It  does  not  properly  honor  woman,  and  excludes  her 
from  its  advantages. 

6.  It  produces  a  dreamy,  self-satisfied,  indolent,  selfish, 
and  non-progressive  people. 

7.  It  makes  the  people  self-reflective,  which  doubtless 
accounts  for  their  profound  philosophical  and  mathematical 
discoveries. 

BUDDHA1 

Buddha  lived  in  the  first  half  of  the  sixth  century  B.C. 
He  sought  to  overthrow  Brahmanism  and  taught  that  all 
men  are  brothers,  that  they  should  show  friendship,  kind- 
ness, pity,  and  love  toward  their  fellow-men.  His  religion 
and  his  spirit  approach  nearer  to  Christianity  than  any 
other  oriental  faith,  and  doubtless  his  influence  was  great 
for  the  uplifting  of  the  race,  though  it  cannot  be  classed 
as  technically  educational.  "  Self-denial,  virtuous  life, 
suppression  of  all  self-seeking,  love  for  fellow-men,"  said 
he,  "  are  cardinal  virtues  which  bring  blessedness  to  man- 
kind." T.  W.  Rhys  Davids  says,  "  Buddha  did  not  abolish 
castes,  as  no  castes  existed  at  his  time."  Had  the  spirit  of 
his  teaching  prevailed,  India  would  never  have  been  cursed 
by  this  baneful  system.  Buddhism  is  a  religion  based  on 
moral  acts.  In  a  corrupted  form  it  has  many  millions  of 
adherents  in  China,  Tibet,  Japan,  and  other  countries ;  but 
it  is  found  in  its  purity  only  in  Ceylon. 

1  See  North  American  Review,  Vol.  171,  p.  517. 


CHAPTER   IV 
PERSIA 

Literature.  —  Benjamin,  Story  of  Persia ;  Ragozin,  The  Story  of 
Media,  Babylon,  and  Persia ;  Rawlinson,  The  Seventh  Great  Oriental 
Monarchy ;  Myers,  Ancient  History ;  Clarke,  Ten  Great  Religions ; 
Lord,  Beacon  Lights  of  History ;  Fergusson,  History  of  Architecture ; 
Sayce,  The  Ancient  Empires  of  the  East. 


Geography  and  History.  —  Persia  lies  in  the  pathway  of 
the  great  caravans  which  formerly  carried  on  trade  be- 
tween Europe  and  India.  It  consists  largely  of  a  high 
plateau,  surrounded  by  mountains.  Large  parts  of  the 
country  are  sandy  and  dry  from  lack  of  sufficient  rain,  and 
therefore  are  unproductive.  The  people  are  a  branch  of 
the  Aryan  race.  They  doubtless  lived  a  nomadic  life, 
and  were  obliged  to  be  ever  ready  to  defend  themselves. 
Success  in  defense  against  the  frequent  assaults  of  their 
surrounding  enemies  stimulated  them  to  become  a  nation 
of  warriors.  This  fact  had  much  to  do  in  shaping  their 
education.  Cyrus  the  Great  conquered  Media  and  brought 
Persia  to  the  summit  of  her  greatness.  The  Persians 
boasted  that  they  had  become  great  by  the  sword,  hence 
they  cared  but  little  for  agriculture  or  manufactures.  They 
levied  tribute  upon  the  nations  they  had  subdued.  Home 
production  was  therefore  unnecessary,  and  they  could 
devote  all  of  their  time  to  the  art  of  war.  About  one 
fourth  of  the  population  are  still  classed  as  wandering 
tribes,  and  the  nation  is  an  aggregation  rather  than  a 
unity  of  peoples. 

40 


PERSIA  4I 

The  early  Persians  worshiped  fire,  and  holy  fires  which 
only  the  Magi,  or  priests,  were  allowed  to  approach, 
were  kept  perpetually  burning  upon  the  mountain  tops. 
The  sun  also  was  worshiped,  the  Persian  kneeling 
with  his  face  toward  the  east  at  sunrise  in  beatific  joy. 
This  worship  may  have  been  borrowed  from  the  Egyptians, 
who  were  conquered  by  the  Persians,  and  with  whom  they 
stood  in  close  relations.  In  later  times  the  religion  of 
Zoroaster  became  the  religion  of  the  people. 

The  Home.  —  Wife  and  children  were  required  to  show 
the  father  great  respect.  Each  morning  the  wife  was 
expected  to  ask  her  husband  nine  times,  "What  do  you 
wish  me  to  do  ? "  The  teacher  stood  next  to  the  father 
in  the  child's  esteem.  The  child  was  kept  at  home 
under  the  care  of  the  mother  until  'seven  years  of  age. 
An  astrologer  gave  him  a  name  and  outlined  his  future 
destiny  by  reference  to  the  stars.  It  was  forbidden  to  tell 
him  the  difference  between  right  and  wrong  before  his 
fifth  year.  No  corporal  punishment  was  administered 
before  his  seventh  year.  The  mother  was  greatly  be- 
loved by  her  children,  though  women  were  excluded 
from  education.  The  position  of  woman  was  much  higher 
than  in  either  China  or  India.  The  chief  training  of  chil- 
dren in  the  home  was  physical.  Throwing,  running, 
archery,  riding,  etc.,  were  the  principal  employments  of 
children.  Absolute  truthfulness  and  justice  were  early 
inculcated.  A  quick  eye,  a  steady  hand,  accurate  power 
of  observation,  and  unwavering  courage  were  qualities 
sought  for  in  every  child,  and  all  of  the  training  in  the 
home,  as  well  as  in  the  later  education,  had  for  its  aim  the 
acquirement  of  these  powers.  Thus  children  were  early 
taught  to  be  self-reliant  and  fearless. 

The  State  Education.  —  i .    Persian    education   was   na- 


42  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION- 

tional  in  character.  After  the  seventh  year  the  boy  was  taken 
from  home  and  educated  entirely  by  and  for  the  State. 

His  training  in  the  use  of  arms,  in  riding,  and  in  other 
athletic  exercises  was  continued.  There  were  large  pub- 
lic institutions  in  which  the  boys  were  quartered,  and 
simplest  food  and  clothing  were  given  them.  Besides 
the  training  for  war,  they  were  taught  religious  proverbs 
and  prayers,  and  were  led  to  practice  truth  and  justice. 
This  education  continued  until  their  fifteenth  year.  The 
teachers  were  men  who  had  passed  their  fiftieth  year,  and 
who  were  chosen  for  virtue  as  well  as  knowledge,  that  they 
might  serve  as  models  to  their  pupils. 

2.  The  second  period  of  education  consisted  of  a  mili- 
tary training,  which  occupied  the  ten  years  between  the 
age  of  fifteen  and  twenty-five. 

3.  The  final  period  was  that  of  the  soldier,  which  con- 
tinued till  the  fiftieth  year,  when  the  Persian  could  retire 
from  the   army  with  honor.     The  most  competent  were 
retained  as  teachers. 

Reading  and  writing  were  taught  to  a  limited  degree, 
but  the  chief  end  of  education  was  to  prepare  the  citizen 
for  war.  The  Magi  were  educated  in  astronomy,  astrology, 
and  alchemy,  and  many  of  the  dervishes  have  ever  been 
renowned  for  their  acuteness,  sense  of  justice,  great 
powers  of  observation,  and  good  judgment. 

Criticism  of  the  Persian  Education.  —  i .  The  State  robs 
the  family  of  its  inherent  right  to  educate  the  children. 

2.  It    neglects    intellectual    education,    giving    undue 
prominence  to  the  physical  and  moral;  and  demands  too 
great  a  part  of  the  active  life  of  man. 

3.  It  makes  the  highest  aim  of  education  to  prepare  for 
war,  and  therefore  does  not  cultivate  the  arts  of  peace. 

4.  It  excludes  woman  from  the  benefits  of  education. 


PERSIA  43 

ZOROASTER  1 

Zoroaster,  the  founder  of  the  Persian  religion,  was  a 
great  teacher.  The  exact  date  of  his  birth  is  unknown,  but 
it  is  generally  placed  at  about  B.C.  600.  The  testimony  of 
ancient  classic  literature  confirms  the  belief  that  he  was  an 
historical  person.  A  tablet  unearthed  in  Greece  contains 
an  account  of  his  life  and  his  doctrines.  Pliny  says  that  he 
laughed  on  the  day  of  his  birth  and  that  forThirty  years  he 
lived  in  the  wilderness  on  cheese.  He  was  the  founder  of 
the  Magi  priesthood,  but  did  not  teach  the  worship  of  fire. 

His  philosophy  is  dualistic.  There  are  two  spirits  or 
principles  that  rule  the  universe.  These  are  Ormuzd,  the 
principle  of  light,  and  Ahriman,  the  principle  of  darkness. 
These  two  opposing  principles  are  in  constant  conflict,  each 
striving  for  the  mastery.  Man  is  the  center  of  the  conflict, 
but  Ormuzd  as  his  creator  has  the  greater  power  over  him. 
All  influences  are  summoned  to  bring  about  the  success  of 
the  good,  and  in  the  end  it  will  surely  prevail.  No 
remission  of  sin  is  taught,  but  judgment  is  represented  as  a 
bridge  over  which  those  whose  good  deeds  outweigh  their 
evil  deeds  are  allowed  to  pass  to  paradise  :  in  case  the  evil 
deeds  outweigh  the  good,  the  person  is  cast  off  forever; 
in  case  of  a  balance  of  good  and  evil  deeds,  there  is 
another  period  of  probation. 

This  dualism  shows  itself  in  nature  as  well  as  in  the 
spiritual  world.  Order  is  opposed  to  lawlessness,  truth 
to  falsehood,  life  to  death,  good  to  evil.  It  is  a  religion 
in  which  the  ideas  of  guilt  and  merit  are  carried  out  to  the 
extreme.  Zoroaster  believed  that  he  was  the  prophet 
chosen  to  promulgate  these  doctrines,  and  his  influence  as 
a  teacher  upon  the  Persian  nation  was  unquestionably  great. 
Persia  is  now  a  Mohammedan  country. 

1  North  American  Review,  Vol.  172,  p.  132. 


CHAPTER  V 

THE  JEWS 

Literature.  —  Hosmer,  Story  of  the  Jews  ;  Clarke,  Ten  Great  Reli- 
gions ;  Durrell,  New  Life  in  Education ;  Myers,  Ancient  History ; 
Stoddard^s  Lectures ;  Lord,  Beacon  Lights  of  History ;  Josephus,  An- 
tiquities of  the  Jews  ;  Morrison,  The  Jews  under  Roman  Rule  ;  Lamed, 
History  for  Ready  Reference  ;  Hegel,  Philosophy  of  History ;  Report  of 
the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education,  1895  ;  Peters,  Justice  to 
the  Jew ;  Laurie,  Pre-Christian  Education. 


Geography  and  History.  —  The  Jews  were  the  ancient 
people  of  God,  the  "chosen  people,"  whose  history  is 
recorded  in  the  Old  Testament  Scriptures.  They  reached 
their  greatest  power  and  glory  during  the  reigns  of  David 
and  Solomon,  and  they  occupied  Palestine,  with  Jerusalem 
as  their  capital  city.  Within  this  small  territory,  some  six 
thousand  square  miles  in  extent,  have  occurred  some  of  the 
most  important  events  of  history,  and  the  Jewish  race  has 
been  the  representative  of  God's  purposes  toward  man. 
The  Almighty  communicated  directly  with  his  people, 
who  were  thus  made  acquainted  with  the  divine  will.  The 
early  Jews  were  nomadic  in  their  habits,  living  in  tents, 
and  tending  their  flocks.  The  patriarch,  who  was  at  the 
head  of  a  family  or  tribe,  made  laws  for  the  people  under 
him  and  governed  them  according  to  the  command  of  God, 
whose  representative  he  was.  Because  God  directly  or 
through  the  patriarch  led  and  instructed  the  people,  their 
education,  like  their  government,  is  called  theocratic. 

The  Jews  lost  their  independence  B.C.  63  in  becoming 
subject  to  the  Romans,  and  in  A.D.  70  Jerusalem  was 

44 


THE  JEWS  45 

destroyed  and  the  Jews  were  dispersed.  Since  that  time 
they  have  been  wanderers  on  the  face  of  the  earth,  and 
there  is  no  part  of  the  world  where  they  are  not  to  be 
found.  They  have  maintained  their  racial  characteristics 
with  remarkable  purity.  They  were  an  agricultural 
people  until  the  Babylonian  captivity,  after  which  they 
became  a  commercial  people.  Persecutions,  which  have 
universally  followed  them,  making  the  acquirement  of 
fixed  property  unsafe,  had  much  to  do  with  this  change. 

The  Home.  — The  Jewish  family  was  the  purest  of  antiq- 
uity. In  general,  monogamy  was  practiced,  and  the  wife 
was  regarded  as  the  companion  and  equal  of  the  husband. 
Children  being  accepted  as  the  gift  of  God,  the  father 
stood  in  the  same  relation  to  his  children  as  Jehovah 
stood  to  man.  Therefore  the  father's  highest  aim  was 
to  bring  up  his  children  in  the  knowledge  and  service 
of  the  Lord.  We  have  here  the  highest  and  best  type 
of  family  draining  to  be  found  in  history,  a  characteristic 
that  still  holds  in  Jewish  families  wherever  they  exist, 
and  that  has  contributed  largely  to  the  maintenance  of 
the  strong  racial  peculiarities  of  the  Jews.  The  father 
taught  his  boys  reading  and  writing,  and  the  mother 
taught  the  girls  household  duties ;  but  the  latter  were  not 
entirely  excluded  from  intellectual  training. 

Great  attention  was  given  to  the  rites  and  ceremonies 
of  the  tabernacle  and  the  Jewish  law.  History  was  also 
taught  as  a  means  of  stimulating  patriotism.  The 
Jewish  child  was  early  made  acquainted  with  the  Scrip- 
tures, and  history,  law,  and  prophecy  became  familiar 
to  every  Jew.  As  there  were  no  schools,  this  was  all 
done  in  the  home  by  the  parents.  Religion  was  the  cen- 
tral thought  of  all  education,  and  preparation  for  the 
service  of  the  tabernacle  and  the  worship  of  God  was 


46 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


early  given  to  every  child.  Thus  in  an  atmosphere  of 
love  and  piety  the  Jew  discharged  his  sacred  duty  with 
care  and  faithfulness.  Obedience  to  the  commands  of 
parents,  veneration  for  the  aged,  wholesome  respect  for 
their  ancestors,  and  familiarity  with  the  Jewish  law 
were  instilled  into  the  minds  of  all  children.  Music 
and  dancing  were  taught  in  every  household,  not  for 
pleasure,  but  as  a  means  of  religious  expression.  By 
prayer  and  holy  living,  by  precept  and  example,  by  word 
and  deed,  the  father  discharged  the  duty  committed  to 
him  by  God,  leading  his  children  by  careful  watchful- 
ness toward  the  ideal  manhood  which  was  revealed  to  him 
by  the  teachings  of  Holy  Writ. 

There  were  no  castes  among  the  Hebrews,  and  the  same 
kind  of  training  was  given  to  the  children  of  rich  and 
poor,  high  and  low,  alike.  No  other  race  of  people  has 
given  such  careful  home  training  to  its  children,  from 
earliest  times  to  the  present. 

The  Jewish  School.  —  There  were  no  elementary  Jewish 
schools  until  after  the  destruction  of  the  nation  and  the  loss 
of  their  civil  liberty.  After  the  defeat  at  Jena  the  Prussians 
turned  to  education  as  the  sole  means  of  retrieving  their 
national  greatness  ;  the  same  was  true  of  the  Austrians 
after  the  defeat  of  Sadowa,  and  of  the  French  after  the  fall 
of  the  empire  at  Sedan.  But  the  Jewish  people  had  set 
this  example  eighteen  centuries  before.  Dittes  says,  "  If 
ever  a  people  has  demonstrated  the  power  of  education,  it 
is  the  people  of  Israel." 

The  rabbis  required,  A.D.  64,  that  every  community 
should  support  a  school,  and  that  attendance  should  be 
compulsory.  This  is  the  first  instance  of  compulsory  edu- 
cation on  record.  If  a  town  was  divided  by  a  stream  with- 
out a  connecting  bridge,  a  school  was  supported  in  each 


THE  JEWS  47 

part.  Not  more  than  twenty-five  pupils  could  be  as- 
signed to  one  teacher,  and  where  the  number  was  greater 
an  assistant  was  employed.  If  there  were  forty  pupils, 
there  were  two  teachers.  It  will  thus  be  seen  that  the 
Jews  put  into  practice  eighteen  centuries  ago  a  condition 
of  things  which,  owing  to  the  complexity  of  our  civiliza- 
tion, is  with  us  to-day  largely  an  unrealized  ideal. 

Teachers  were  respected  even  more  than  parents,  for 
it  was  held  that  parents  prepared  their  children  for  the 
present,  but  teachers  for  the  future.  None  but  mature 
married  men  were  employed  as  teachers.  It  was  said 
that  "  he  who  learns  of  a  young  master  is  like  a  man  who 
eats  green  grapes,  and  drinks  wine  fresh  from  the  press ; 
but  he  who  has  a  master  of  mature  years  is  like  a  man  who 
eats  ripe  and  delicious  grapes,  and  drinks  old  wine." 

The  child  entered  school  at  six.  Previous  to  that  age 
physical  exercise  and  bodily  growth  were  to  be  the  ends 
sought.  "When  he  enters  school,"  says  the  Talmud, 
"  load  him  like  an  ox."  Other  authorities,  however,  en- 
couraged giving  him  tasks  according  to  his  strength.  The 
subjects  taught  were  reading,  writing,  natural  history, 
arithmetic,  geometry,  and  astronomy.  The  Scriptures  were 
taught  to  all  the  children,  and  all  were  versed  in  religious 
rites. 

The  methods  were  good  and  attractive,  great  effort 
being  made  to  lead  the  children  to  understand,  even 
though  it  might  be  necessary  to  repeat  four  hundred 
times.  The  discipline  was  humane.  According  to  the 
Talmud,  "  children  should  be  punished  with  one  hand  and 
caressed  with  two."  Corporal  punishment  was  adminis- 
tered only  to  children  over  eleven  years  of  age. 

The  Schools  of  the  Rabbis.  —  Karl  Schmidt  says : 
"  Culture  in  a  people  begins  with  the  creation  of  a  litera- 


48  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

ture  and  the  use  of  writing."  The  oldest  monument  of 
writing  among  the  Israelites  is  found  in  the  tables  of 
stone  containing  the  Ten  Commandments.  Moses,  David, 
Solomon,  and  Isaiah,  and  the  other  prophets  were  the 
founders  of  the  Hebrew  literature. 

Among  the  instrumentalities  of  higher  education  were 
the  Schools  of  the  Prophets,  which  taught  philosophy, 
medicine,  poetry,  history,  and  law  to  the  sons  of  prophets 
and  priests,  and  of  leading  families.  These  schools  were 
influential  in  stimulating  the  production  of  the  historical, 
poetical,  and  prophetic  books  of  the  Old  Testament. 

But  more  important  as  direct  means  of  higher  education 
were  the  Schools  of  the  Rabbis.  These  sprang  up  in 
Alexandria,  Babylon,  and  Jerusalem  in  the  early  centuries 
of  the  Christian  era.  They  were  private  institutions 
founded  by  celebrated  teachers.  Doubtless  it  was  in  such 
a  school  as  this  that  St.  Paul  was  brought  up  at  the  feet 
of  Gamaliel.  The  principal  subjects  studied  were  theology 
and  law,  —  politics,  history,  mathematics  and  science  being 
excluded.  The  collection  of  the  sayings  and  discussions 
was  begun  in  the  second  century  A.D.  and  afterward  took 
form  in  the  Talmud. 

Criticism  of  Jewish  Education.  —  i.  It  exalted  the 
home  and  insisted  on  the  control  of  children  by  their 
parents. 

2.  It  gave  to  woman  an  honored  place  in  the  home. 

3.  It  gave  an  intelligent  interpretation  of   the  school 
and  its  functions.     In  regard   to   school  attendance,  the 
number  of  pupils  under  one  teacher,  the  respect  due  to 
teachers,  the  course  of  study,  and  many  other  matters,  it 
showed  practical  wisdom. 

4.  It  taught  obedience,  patriotism,  and  religion. 

5.  It  provided  only  for  Jewish  children. 


THE  JEWS  49 

6.  It  was  mild  and  generally  wise  in  discipline,  though 
mistaken  in  forbidding   corporal    punishment  before  the 
eleventh  year,  while  admitting  its  use  after  that. 

7.  It  developed  an  honest,  intelligent,  progressive,  God- 
fearing people. 

8.  It  produced  some  of  the  greatest  poets  and  historians 
of  the  world. 

THE  TALMUD1 

This  book,  as  we  have  seen,  is  the  outgrowth  of  the 
discussions  of  the  rabbis,  whose  sayings,  collected  from 
the  second  to  the  sixth  century  A.D.,  are  herein  contained. 
It  proclaims  with  great  minuteness  rules  of  life  which  the 
faithful  Jew  still  rigidly  observes.  It  has  aided  in  per- 
petuating Jewish  laws,  ceremonies,  customs,  and  religion, 
and  has  been  the  most  potent  means  of  preserving  the  na- 
tional and  racial  characteristics  of  the  Jews  for  nearly  two 
thousand  years.  Driven  from  one  country  to  another,  they 
have  always  carried  the  Talmud  with  them  and  have  been 
guided  and  kept  united  by  its  teachings.  During  the  last 
quarter  of  the  nineteenth  century  the  study  of  the  Talmud 
has  been  revived,  not  only  among  the  Jews,  but  also  among 
Christians  and  students  of  all  classes. 

EXTRACTS   FROM   THE   TALMUD 

1.  Even  if  the  gates  of  heaven  are  shut  to  prayer,  they 
are  open  to  tears. 

2.  Teach  thy  tongue  to  say,  "  I  do  not  know." 

3.  If  a  word  spoken  in  its  time  is  worth  one  piece  of 
money,  silence  is  worth  two. 

4.  Not  the  place  honors  the  man,  but  the  man  the  place. 

5.  The  world  is  saved  by  the  breath  of  school  children. 

1  See  Peters,  "  Justice  to  the  Jew." 
HIST.    OF  ED.  —  4 


CHAPTER    VI 

EGYPT 

Literature.  —  Maspero,  Egyptian  Archaeology ;  Wilkinson,  The  An- 
cient Egyptians  ;  Stoddarcfs  Lectures  ;  Myers,  Ancient  History  ;  Rout- 
ledge,  The  Modern  Wonders  of  the  World ;  Johonnot,  Geographical 
Reader  ;  Edwards,  A  Thousand  Miles  up  the  Nile  ;  Knox,  Egypt  and 
the  Holy  Land  ;  Ballou,  Due  West  ;  Clarke,  Ten  Great  Religions ; 
Eber s,  Uarda ;  and  Egyptian  Princess ;  Curtis,  Nile  Notes  of  aHowadji. 
Rawlinson,  History  of  Ancient  Egypt. 


Geography  and  History.  —  Egypt  consists  of  a  narrow 
strip  of  land  about  six  hundred  miles  long,  lying  in  the 
northeastern  part  of  Africa.  Its  geographical  importance 
is  due  to  the  river  Nile,  which  flows  through  it,  and  which, 
by  its  annual  overflow,  enriches  the  soil,  and  makes  one 
of  the  most  productive  portions  of  the  globe.  For  many 
centuries  reservoirs  for  the  storage  of  water  in  time  of  the 
overflow,  and  irrigation  canals  for  its  later  distribution, 
have  secured  the  country  against  drought,  and  thus 
abundant  harvests  were  always  assured  "  independent 
of  the  seasons  and  the  skies."  This,  with  the  mild  climate 
and  exceedingly  rich  soil,  made  food  attainable  with  slight 
labor,  furnishing  an  abundance,  not  only  for  its  own  popu- 
lation, but  making  Egypt  the  granary  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean countries.  We  learn  from  the  Scriptures,  of  the 
visits  of  the  sons  of  Jacob  to  Egypt  to  buy  corn  of  Joseph 
when  famine  existed  in  their  own  land.  These  conditions, 
which  made  living  so  cheap,  were  doubtless  the  main 
causes  of  the  early  settlement  of  the  valley  of  the  Nile, 
and  the  rapid  increase  in  its  population.  In  confirmation 

5° 


EGYPT  5 1 

of  the  foregoing  we  have  the  testimony  of  Diodorus 
Siculus,  a  Greek  writer,  who  visited  Egypt  nearly  two 
thousand  years  ago.  He  tells  us  that  the  entire  cost  to 
bring  up  a  child  to  manhood  was  not  more  than  twenty 
drachmas  (less  than  four  dollars  of  our  money).1 

Of  the  antiquity  of  Egyptian  history  we  have  abundant 
evidence.  Swinton  says,  "  Egypt  is  the  country  in  which 
we  first  find  a  government  and  political  institutions 
established.  Egypt  itself  may  not  have  been  the  oldest 
nation,  but  Egyptian  history  is  certainly  the  oldest  his- 
tory. Its  monuments,  records,  and  literature  surpass  in 
antiquity  those  of  Chaldea  and  India,  the  two  next  old- 
est nations."2  The  records  of  the  history  of  Egypt  are 
found  in  abundance  carved  on  her  monuments,  tombs, 
buildings,  implements,  etc.  They  were  written  in  hiero- 
glyphics, the  meaning  of  which  was  unknown  until  the  dis- 
covery of  the  "  Rosetta  stone,"  which  furnished  the  key 
to  their  interpretation. 

The  ancient  Egyptians  excelled  in  mechanics  and  arts. 
It  is  doubtful  whether  to-day  we  know  as  much  of  certain 
sciences  as  they  did  four  thousand  years  ago.  Their 
applications  of  mechanics,  e'ngineering,  dyeing,  and  em- 
balming still  remain  to  us  "lost  arts."  The  wisdom  of 
the  Egyptians  was  proverbial,  and  the  great  scholars 
of  other  countries  made  pilgrimages  to  Egypt  to  study 
philosophy,  literature,  law,  and  science. 

The  Caste  System.  —  The  caste  system  existed  also  in 
Egypt,  but  in  no  such  strict  sense  as  in  India.  The  first 
and  highest  caste  consisted  of  the  priests,  who  represented 
the  learning  and  wealth  of  the  country.  They  owned 

1  The  student  should  bear  in  mind  the  fact  that  the  purchasing  power  of  a 
sum  equivalent  to  four  dollars  was  much  greater  in  those  days  than  now. 

2  "  Outlines  of  the  World's  History,"  p.  12. 


52  HISTORY  *OF  EDUCATION 

one  third  of  the  land,  upon  which  they  paid  no  tax.  They 
held  all  the  offices,  were  the  surveyors,  engineers,  teachers, 
—  indeed,  their  caste  alone  furnished  all  the  higher  pro- 
fessions. They  ruled  the  land  with  an  iron  hand.  Con- 
cerning their  influence,  Swinton  says,  "  The  priests  were 
the  richest,  most  powerful,  and  most  influential  order.  It 
must  not  be  supposed,  however,  that  the  modern  word 
'priest'  gives  the' true  idea  of  this  caste.  Its  members 
were  not  limited  to  religious  offices ;  they  formed  an  order 
comprising  many  occupations  and  professions.  They  were 
distributed  all  over  the  country,  possessing  exclusively  the 
means  of  reading  and  writing,  and  the  whole  stock  of 
medical  and  scientific  knowledge.  Their  ascendency,  both 
direct  and  indirect,  over  the  minds  of  the  people  was 
immense,  for  they  prescribed  that  minute  religious  ritual 
under  which  the  life  of  every  Egyptian,  not  excepting  the 
king  himself,  was  passed."  l 

The  second  caste  consisted  of  the  military  class,  who 
also  belonged  to  the  nobles.  There  was  freer  intercourse 
between  the  two  higher  castes  than  was  possible  in  the 
Hindu  system.  It  was  not  uncommon  to  find  brothers  be- 
longing to  different  castes.  'Ampere  found  an  inscription 
on  a  monument  mentioning  one  son  as  a  priest,  another 
as  governor  of  a  province,  and  a  third  as  superintendent 
of  buildings.  To  each  member  of  this  caste  was  assigned 
a  parcel  of  land  (six  and  one  half  acres),  which  also  was  free 
from  taxation.  These  two  higher  castes  were  especially 
privileged,  and  the  gulf  between  them  and  the  lower  castes 
was  very  wide. 

The  third,  or  unprivileged  caste  was  subdivided  into 
three  orders:  (i)  the  farmers  and  boatmen;  (2)  the 
mechanics  and  tradespeople ;  and  (3)  the  common 

•     *  "  Outlines  of  History,"  p.  20. 


EGYPT  53 

laborers.  Between  these,  also,  there  were  bonds  of 
common  interest,  though  a  decided  difference  between  the 
orders  was  recognized. 

The  caste  system  may  be  outlined  as  follows :  — 

I.    Priests,  who  represented  the  learning  and  wealth  and 

ruled  the  land. 

II.   Soldiers,  who,  though  lower  in  caste  than  the  priests, 
Egyptian  yet  associated  with  them. 

Castes.  fl.  Farmers  and  boatmen,  who  stood  the  highest  in 

rank  of  this  caste. 

2.  Mechanics  and  tradespeople,  who  ranked  next. 

3.  The  common  laborers. 

The  slaves  were  lower  than  the  common  laborers,  and 
were  not  classified  among  the  castes.  They  were  generally 
captives  taken  in  war.  Respect  and  reverence  for  the 
higher  castes  were  by  no  means  so  marked  as  in  India, 
and  outbreaks  between  the  various  classes  were  common. 

The  Home.  —  Woman  occupied  a  much  higher  plane  in 
Egypt  than  in  China  or  India,  though  polygamy  was  prac- 
ticed by  all  classes  except  the  priests.  She  was  the  recog- 
nized mistress  of  the  home,  possessed  some  education,  and 
largely  directed  the  education  of  the  children.  Children 
of  wives  of  different  castes  had  equal  rights  before  the  law 
to  inheritance.  Great  attention  was  paid  to  religious  cere- 
monies, and  the  children  were  taught  piety  and  obedience 
in  their  early  youth.  They  were  highly  regarded  in  the 
Egyptian  home,  and  were  brought  up  in  an  atmosphere  of 
love  and  filial  respect.  The  day  of  a  child's  birth  was 
regarded  as  determining  its  destiny.  The  child  was  brought 
up  on  the  simplest  food,  and  furnished  with  scanty  cloth- 
ing, in  order  that  its  body  might  be  strong  and  supple. 

The  Education.  —  The  education,  like  that  of  India,  was 
suited  to  the  different  castes.  Priests  were  the  only 


54 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


teachers.  While  chief  attention  was  given  to  the  educa- 
tion of  boys,  girls  also  received  some  instruction.  The 
principal  subjects  taught  in  the  lowest  caste  were  writing 
and  mathematics.  The  papyrus  plant,  found  along  the 
Nile,  furnished  a  material  on  which  writing  was  practiced. 
In  arithmetic  we  find  an  anticipation  of  modern  principles 
in  the  concrete  methods  employed.  Religious  instruction 
was  also  given.  Bodily  exercise  was  severe,  running  being 
a  favorite  pastime.  The  expense  of  schooling  was  very 
small.  The  boy  usually  followed  the  trade  of  his  father, 
though  this  was  not  an  inflexible  rule.  The  occupation  he 
was  to  follow  had  some  influence  in  shaping  his  education. 
The  higher  castes  received  an  extensive  education,  in- 
cluding a  knowledge  of  higher  mathematics,  astronomy, 
language,  natural  science,  medicine,  music,  engineering, 
and  religion.  The  annual  overflow  of  the  Nile  necessitated 
•the  construction  of  reservoirs  and  irrigation  canals,  and 
caused  frequent  changes  of  boundary  lines.  For  all 
this  a  knowledge  of  mathematics  was  necessary,  and 
this  study  was  therefore  greatly  encouraged.  Institu- 
tions of  higher  learning  for  the  training  of  priests  and 
soldiers  were  found  at  Thebes,  Memphis,  and  Heliopolis. 
The  Museum  of  Alexandria,  which  reached  its  highest 
prosperity  about  the  middle  of  the  third  century  B.C.,  and 
which  made  Alexandria  the  center  of  the  learning  of  the 
world  at  that  period,  attracted  philosophers  and  investi- 
gators from  Athens  and  Rome.  In  connection  with  the 
Museum  was  the  celebrated  Alexandrian  library,  which 
was  fostered  by  the  Ptolemies,  and  which  contained  a  vast 
collection  of  books,  variously  estimated  at  from  four  hun- 
dred thousand  to  seven  hundred  thousand  volumes,1 

1  It  must  be  observed  that  the  ancient  volume,  or  roll,  contained  much  less 
matter  than  the  modern  book. 


EGYPT 


55 


Criticism  of  Egyptian  Education.  —  i .  It  was  dominated 
by  the  priests  under  the  caste  system,  and  did  not  recog- 
nize equality  of  man. 

2.  It  encouraged  greater  respect  for  woman  than  other 
oriental  systems,  but  took  little  account  of  her  intellectual 
training. 

3.  It  made  use  of  concrete  methods,  at  least  in  writing 
and  arithmetic,  for  the  first  time  in  history. 

4.  It  was  non-progressive  in  its  elementary  education, 
the  father  generally  expecting  his  son  to-  follow  his  calling. 

5.  In  higher  education  it  was  justly  noted,  as  it  attracted 
wise  men  from  Greece  and  Rome  to  study  its  science  and 
philosophy. 

GENERAL   SUMMARY  OF   ORIENTAL   EDUCATION 

With  the  discussion  of  Egyptian  education,  the  con- 
sideration of  oriental  systems  ceases.  Concerning  the 
education  of  the  Phoenicians,  Babylonians,  and  other 
oriental  nations  we  know  but  little.  To  the  Phoenicians  the 
invention  of  the  alphabet,  glass  making,  and  purple  dyeing  is 
generally  credited,  and  the  knowledge  of  these  things  was 
communicated  to  the  Mediterranean  nations  with  whom 
they  engaged  in  trade.  The  classical  countries  were  mate- 
rially influenced  by  Egyptian  culture,  and  the  way  was 
prepared  for  a  broader  and  more  enlightened  interpreta- 
tion of  the  purpose  of  education,  and  for  a  more  successful 
evolution  of  civilization  on  soil  better  suited  to  that  end. 
We  may  briefly  summarize  the  lessons  of  oriental  educa- 
tion, as  follows :  — 

i.  The  Oriental  systems  fostered  class  distinctions  by 
furnishing  but  little  enlightenment  to  the  lower  classes, 
and  affording  superior  advantages  to  the  privileged  few. 


56  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION- 

2.  They  were  non-progressive,  for  centuries  witnessed 
no   improvement   in  methods  of  instruction,   reached  no 
higher  ideals,  and  marked  no  advance  in  civilization. 

3.  They  did  not  feel  the  need  of  trained  teachers. 

4.  The  importance  of  the  individual  was  not  appreciated, 
and  man  was  regarded  as  belonging  to  the  State. 

5.  The  end  sought  was  good  conduct,  which  was  to  be 
attained  through  memorizing  moral  precepts.     This  gave 
undue  importance  to  the  memory. 

6.  Little  encouragement  was  given  to  free  investigation  ; 
authority  of   teachers  and  ancestral   traditions  were  the 
principal  factors  employed.     The  progress  of  civilization 
was  therefore  very  slow. 

/.  In  general,  excepting  with  the  Jews,  woman  had 
no  part  in  education,  being  regarded  as  incapable  of  any 
considerable  intellectual  development. 

8.  In  China  the  motive  of  education  was  to  prepare  for 
success  in  this  life ;  in  India,  for  the  future  life ;  in  Persia, 
to  support  the  State ;  in  Israel,  to  rehabilitate  the  nation  ; 
and  in  Egypt,  to  maintain  the  supremacy  of  the  priests. 

9.  In  no  case  was  the  conception  reached  that  the  aim 
of   education  should  be  to  emancipate  all  the  powers  of 
man,  —  physical,  intellectual,  moral,  spiritual. 

10.  Finally,  we  may  sum  up  the  conditions  that  pre- 
pared the  way  for  classical  education  in  the  words  of 
Karl  Schmidt :  "  In  Greece  at  last  the  idea  of  human 
individuality  as  the  principal  end,  and  not  as  a  means  to 
that  end,  was  grasped.  Conformable  to  this  truth,  all 
human,  social,  and  political  conditions  were  shaped  and 
education  given  its  form.  This  idea  of  the  emancipation 
of  the  individual  became  established  in  Greece  with  a 
brilliancy  which  attracts  attention  to  that  land  until  the 
present  time." 


CHAPTER  VII 

GREECE 

Literature. — Davidson,  Education  of  the  Greek  People;  Felton, 
Ancient  and  Modern  Greece  ;  Grote,  History  of  Greece  ;  Curtius,  His- 
tory of  Greece  ;  Morris,  Historical  Tales  (Greek);  Mahaffy,  Old  Greek 
Education ;  Social  Life  in  Greece ;  The  Greek  World  under  Roman 
Sway ;  Clarke,  Ten  Great  Religions  ;  Guhl  and  Koner,  Life  of  Greeks 
and  Romans  ;  Timayenis,  History  of  Greece  ;  Wilkins,  National  Educa- 
tion in  Greece ;  Lord,  Beacon  Lights ;  Monroe,  Source  Book  of  the 
History  of  Education. 

Geography  and  History.  —  Greece  lies  in  the  center  of 
the  ancient  world.  The  numerous  islands  between  it  and 
the  mainland  of  Asia  made  stepping-stones  for  the  hardy 
mariners  who,  filled  with  the  spirit  of  adventure,  pushed 
out  farther  and  farther  from  the  Asiatic  shores  until 
they  reached  Greece  —  the  first  European  country  to  be 
settled.  Here  we  find  another  branch  of  the  great  Aryan 
race. 

The  coast  is  broken  up  by  many  indentations  which 
afford  fine  harbors  and  invite  seafaring  life.  The  surface 
is  mountainous,  the  ranges  cutting  the  country  up  into 
many  sections  or  states.  The  climate  is  varying,  depend- 
ing upon  proximity  to  the  sea,  and  upon  the  elevation. 
The  scenery  is  beautiful,  and  the  soil  in  the  valleys  is  fer- 
tile. The  productions  are  fruit,  grain,  and  silk.  As  might 
be  expected  from  the  nature  of  the  country,  the  people 
show  much  commercial  enterprise.  The  area  is  about 

57 


$8  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

twenty-five  thousand  square  miles,  and  the  population 
about  2,200,000. 

The  Greeks  were  a  brave  and  ambitious  people,  and 
their  history  is  full  of  heroic  deeds  and  stirring  events. 
The  many  small  states  were  often  hostile  to  one  another. 
Athens  and  Sparta  were  the  two  most  important  cities. 
Around  them  centered  two  diverse  forms  of  civilization, 
and  in  them  were  developed  two  very  different  standards 
of  education.  It  will  be  necessary,  therefore,  to  discuss 
separately  the  education  of  these  two  cities.  When  the 
Grecian  states  were  united  in  defense,  no  outside  power 
was  able  to  conquer  them ;  but,  unfortunately,  jealousies 
often  arose  which  brought  them  into  conflict  with  one 
another,  and  which  finally  caused  the  overthrow  of  all.  In 
art  and  literature  Greece  reached  the  summit  of  her  glory 
in  Athens  in  the  age  of  Derides,  the  fifth  century  B.C.  The 
work  accomplished  by  Athens  has  been  the  inspiration  of 
the  world  for  nearly  twenty-four  hundred  years. 

In  government,  in  manners,  and  in  customs  the  Greeks 
were  very  different  from  the  oriental  nations.  The  spirit 
of  political  freedom  prevailed  here  for  the  first  time  in  the 
history  of  the  world.  Doubtless  the  small  size  of  the 
states,  which  were  separated  from  each  other  by  natural 
boundaries,  was  an  important  factor  in  stimulating  the 
people  to  secure  and  maintain  this  independence.  "  Man's 
character  is  formed  by  the  surroundings  of  his  home." 
The  beautiful  valleys  and  mountains,  the  varying  climate, 
the  sea  with  its  many  islands  and  harbors,  the  soil,  in 
the  main  yielding  its  fruit  only  by  hard  labor,  were 
elements  well  calculated  to  produce  a  hardy  race,  —  a 
race  with  lofty  ideals,  loving  beauty  both  of  mind  and 
body. 

The  Olympian  Games.  —  Because  of  their  national  popu- 


GREECE  59 

larity  and  their  direct  influence  on  the  education  of  the 
people,  a  description  of  the  Olympian  games  is  not  out  of 
place  in  a  history  of  education.  At  first  they  were  re- 
ligious in  character.  They  were  celebrated  in  honor  of 
Zeus,  at  Olympia,  in  Elis,  which  became  the  Holy  Land 
of  Greece.  They  took  place  once  in  four  years,  and  this 
period,  called  an  Olympiad,  furnished  the  basis  of  com- 
puting time.  The  first  Olympiad  begins  with  B.C.  776. 
All  of  the  states  took  part  in  these  contests,  and  when  at 
war,  hostilities  were  suspended  during  the  games,  that 
visitors  might  attend  them  unmolested.  Thus  once  in  four 
years  the  various  states  of  Greece  were  united  in  friendly 
contest  and  joyous  festivity. 

At  first  there  was  only  the  foot  race,  but  afterward 
wrestling,  jumping,  and  throwing  the  spear  were  added. 
Still  later,  chariot  and  horse  races,  and  contests  in  painting, 
sculpture,  and  literature,  were  included.  Only  Greek  citi- 
zens of  good  moral  character  could  enter  the  contests.  The 
prize,  though  but  a  simple  wreath  of  laurel  or  olive,  was 
most  highly  esteemed.  At  first  spectators  were  attracted 
from  the  different  parts  of  Greece  only ;  but  afterward  the 
games  became  great  fairs  for  the  exchange  of  commodities, 
as  well  as  contests  which  attracted  people  from  all  parts  of 
Europe. 

The  Olympian  games  tended  to  unite  the  people  and 
/cultivate  the  arts  of  peace.  They  encouraged  the  develop- 
ment of  perfect  bodies,  the  training  being  designed  to  pro- 
duce superior  athletes.  They  inculcated  broader  views, 
bringing  together  people  from  different  parts  of  their  own 
land  and  from  other  lands.  They  incited  intellectual  am- 
bition by  adding  in  later  times  literary  productions.  They 
created  a  manly  spirit  and  stimulated  a  national  patriotism. 


CHAPTER   VIII 

ATHENS 

Literature.  —  (See  general  literature  for  Greece.)  Harrison,  Story 
of  Greece ;  Macaulay,  Essays  ;  Curtius,  History  of  Greece  ;  Davidson, 
Education  of  the  Greeks ;  Wilktns,  National  Education  in  Greece ; 
Freeman,  Historical  Essays. 


History.  —  The  ideals  of  Athens  —  educational,  political, 
and  moral  —  were  in  direct  contrast  to  those  of  Sparta. 
At  Athens,  love  of  liberty,  love  of  knowledge,  and  love  of 
beauty  went  hand  in  hand.  Though  the  body  was  not 
neglected,  as  is  proved  by  the  beautiful  types  of  manhood 
preserved  for  us  in  Athenian  art,  the  Athenians  believed 
that  the  truest  beauty  was  to  be  reached  only  by  the 
development  of  the  mind. 

Hence  Athens  brought  forth  great  men  like  Pericles, 
Socrates,  Plato,  and  Aristotle,  she  created  a  literature  that 
has  influenced  the  world,  she  developed  art  to  its  highest 
excellence,  and  gained  for  herself  a  permanent  and  high 
place  in  the  world's  history.  Sparta  did  none  of  these 
things,  therefore  her  ruin  was  sure  and  speedy ;  while  the 
decline  of  Athens  was  slow  and  her  influence  still  lives. 

The  spirit  of  Athens  was  liberty,  while  that  of  Sparta 
was  tyranny.  It  is  true  that  Athens  had  slaves ;  indeed, 
only  one  fourth  of  the  inhabitants  were  free  ;  but  even  the 
slaves  had  a  large  share  of  freedom,  and  enjoyed  some 
means  of  education.  We  learn  that  children  of  the  wealthy 
were  committed  to  trusted  slaves,  called  pedagogues,  who 

60 


ATHENS  6 1 

escorted  them  to  school,  instructed  them  in  many  things, 
and  had  a  right  to  punish  them  for  disobedience.  This 
could  not  have  been  allowed  by  parents  with  such  high 
ideals  had  the  slaves  been  debased  as  were  those  of  Sparta. 

In  Athens  we  find  for  the  first  time  the  democratic  idea 
of  government;  this  was  by  no  means  so  completely 
realized  as  it  is  in  modern  times,  especially  in  the  western 
world.  The  "  Age  of  Pericles  "  (B.C.  480-430)  forms  the 
most  brilliant  period  of  Athens,  a  period  hardly  surpassed 
in  some  respects  by  any  other  in  the  world's  history. 
Solon  (B.C.  638)  was  the  great  lawgiver  of  Athens.  His 
wise  laws  had  much  influence  on  the  prosperity  and  intel- 
lectual development  of  the  people. 

The  Home.  —  In  Athens  the.  child  was  left  with  the 
mother  until  the  sixth  or  seventh*  year.  The  toys  were 
greater  in  variety  than  with  any  other  people  of  antiquity. 
They  were  much  the  same  in  character  as  those  of  modern 
times,  and  their  purpose  was  to  amuse  the  children  rather 
than  to  furnish  a  definite  preparation  for  life,  as  in  Persia 
and  Sparta.  Play,  therefore,  was  recognized  as  an  im- 
portant factor  in  the  child's  life,  and  the  toys  in  use  stim- 
ulated and  encouraged  the  joyous  element  in  the  child's 
nature.  That  toys  are  a  potent  influence  toward  healthful 
mental  and  physical  growth  is  an  educational  truth  that 
has  been  fully  recognized  by  us  only  within  recent  years. 
And  yet  the  Athenians  appreciated  it  in  the  home,  twenty- 
five  centuries  ago. 

The  training  was  intellectual  and  humane,  though  strict 
obedience  was  enforced.  Great  attention  was  paid  to  the 
works  of  the  poets,  selections  being  taught  to  all  the  chil- 
dren. The  father  interested  himself  chiefly  in  the  education 
of  the  boys,  and  when  he  was  unable  to  discharge  this  duty 
an  elderly  male  relative  was  selected  as  mentor,  who  devoted 


62  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION' 

his  leisure  hours  to  such  training.  Little  attention  was 
paid  to  the  mental  training  of  the  girls. 

Women  were  not  held  in  so  high  esteem  as  in  Sparta, 
nor  were  they  as  worthy  of  respect.  The  husband  exer- 
cised over  his  wife  the  same  authority  as  over  his  children. 
Neither  by  social  position  nor  by  intellectual  attainment 
was  she  his  equal.  "  Her  own  chamber  was  the  world  of 
the  Athenian  woman ;  her  maids  were  her  companions ; 
household  duties  and  the  preparation  of  clothing  for  her 
family  were  her  employment." 

Education.  —  The  father  was  free  to  choose  for  his 
children  their  school  and  the  character  of  their  education. 
The  State  furnished  gymnasia  in  which  schools  could  be 
held,  fixed  the  qualifications  of  teachers,  the  school  hours, 
and  the  number  of  pupils  to  a  teacher.  Once  a  year 
public  examinations  were  held,  the  expense  of  which  the 
State  defrayed.  The  schools  were  private  institutions, 
supported  by  private  means,  though  under  State  inspection. 
The  teachers  were  philosophers  or  wise  men,  thoroughly 
competent  to  discharge  the  duties  of  their  office. 

At  six  or  seven  years  of  age,  the  boy  was  sent  to  school 
in  charge  of  a  pedagogue,  or  leader  of  the  young,  — 
usually  an  old  and  trusted  slave.  While  not  intrusted  with 
the  actual  teaching  of  his  charge,  he  was  responsible  for 
his  morals  and  manners,  and  was  allowed,  as  we  have  seen, 
to  administer  punishment.  The  pedagogue  was  the  con- 
stant attendant  of  the  boy.  The  character  of  the  school 
chosen  depended  upon  the  means  of  the  parents. 

The  first  two  years  were  devoted  chiefly  to  gymnastics. 
The  two  subjects  of  the  elementary  course  were  gymnas- 
tics and  music,  the  latter  term  including  reading  and  writ- 
ing. But  little  arithmetic  was  taught,  as  the  Athenians 
believed  that  the  object  of  the  study  of  arithmetic  was 


ATHENS  63 

simply  utility,  and  but  little  arithmetic  was  needed  for 
practical  use.  "  Calculating  boards  "  made  the  reckoning 
for  all  business  needs  a  purely  mechanical  process.  The 
idea  of  education  was  the  development  of  the  beautiful, 
and  they  held  that  arithmetic  contributed  but  little  to  this 
end.  The  works  of  the  poets  were  given  prominence 
throughout  the  Athenian  education,  and  pupils  were 
required  to  commit  to  memory  many  selections. 

The  Sophists.  —  The  Sophists  flourished  during  the  fifth 
century  B.C.  Their  greatest  exponents  were  Protagoras 
and  Gorgias.  They  introduced  a  movement  of  which 
Schwegler  says,  "  It  had  struck  its  roots  into  the  whole 
moral,  political,  and  religious  character  of  the  Hellenic 
life  of  that  time."  They  wandered  about  from  place  to 
place  proclaiming  themselves  as  philosophers  and  bidding 
for  the  patronage  of  the  rich  by  charging  large  fees  and 
considering  public  questions.  They  discussed  error  and 
wrong  with  the  same  eloquence  and  zeal  that  they  dis- 
cussed truth  and  justice,  their  purpose  being  to  foster  elo- 
quence rather  than  discover  truth.  Hence,  we  have  the 
word  "  sophistry,"  which  means  fallacious  reasoning. 
And  yet,  in  the  words  of  Schwegler,  "  It  cannot  be 
denied  that  Protagoras  also  hit  upon  many  correct  princi- 
ples of  rhetoric,  and  satisfactorily  established  certain  gram- 
matical categories.  It  may  in  general  be  said  of  the 
Sophists  that  they  gave  the  people  a  great  profusion  of 
general  knowledge ;  .  .  .  that  they  called  out  investigations 
in  the  theory  of  knowledge,  in  logic,  and  in  language ;  that 
they  laid  the  basis  for  the  methodical  treatment  of  many 
branches  of  human  knowledge,  and  that  they  partly  origi- 
nated and  partly  assisted  the  wonderful  intellectual  activity 
which  characterized  Athens  at  that  time." 

Children  of  the  poorer  classes  were  kept  in  school  until 


64  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

tHeir  fourteenth  or  fifteenth  year,  when  they  learned  a 
trade.  Those  of  the  rich  remained  in  school  until  their 
twentieth  year.  The  course  of  study  of  the  latter  included 
music,  rhetoric,  grammar,  and  philosophy.  At  twenty  the 
youth's  education  was  regarded  as  completed,  and  the 
young  man  became  a  citizen.  Teachers  were  paid  fees 
and  not  fixed  salaries. 

It  was  the  atmosphere  of  Athens,  more  than  the  disci- 
pline of  the  school,  that  fostered  culture  and  inspired 
learning.  The  aim  of  education  was  the  beautiful,  and 
the  ideal  was  the  aesthetic  in  mind  and  body. 

Criticism  of  Athenian  Education. —  i.  It  sought  to  edu- 
cate the  entire  man,  giving  him  beauty  of  form,  keenness 
of  intellect,  and  nobleness  of  heart. 

2.  It  acknowledged  the  right  of  parents  to  direct  and 
determine  the  education  of  their  children. 

3.  It  recognized  the  importance  of  the  individual  as  no 
other  people  had  before. 

4.  Strict  obedience  was  required  of  the  children. 

5.  It  produced  great  men,  with  high  moral  and  intel- 
lectual ideals,  but  these  ideals  were  centered  in  Athenian 
culture. 

6.  It  excluded  women  and  slaves  from  its  benefits,  and 
was  by  no  means  universal. 

7.  It  recognized   the  value  of  play  as  an  educational 
force,  thereby  anticipating  the  kindergarten. 

8.  The  State  exercised  a  certain  control  over  the  school 
by  furnishing  places  where  it  might  be  held,  by  defraying 
the  expense  of  examinations,  by  determining  the  number 
of  pupils  to  a  teacher,  by  fixing  the  limit  of  school  hours, 
and  by  deciding  upon  the  qualifications  of  teachers.     And 
yet  the  choice  of  education  was  free,  and  its  aim  was  the 
good  of  the  individual  and  not  the  glory  of  the  State. 


CHAPTER   IX 

ATHENIAN   EDUCATORS 

Literature.  —  Bulkley,  Plato's  Best  Thoughts  ;  SckwegUr,  History  of 
Philosophy;  Morris,  Historical  Tales;  Curtius,  History  of  Greece; 
Lord,  Beacon  Lights ;  Spofford,  Library  of  Historical  Characters ; 
Jowett,  The  Republic  of  Plato ;  Vogel,  Geschichte  der  Padagogik ; 
Emerson,  Representative  Men ;  De  Quincey,  Plato's  Republic ;  Hegel, 
Philosophy  of  History. 

SOCRATES  (B.C.  470-399) 

SOCRATES  was  the  son  of  a  sculptor  of  Athens.  Though 
he  learned  his  father's  trade  and  followed  it  in  early  man- 
hood, he  relinquished  it  to  devote  himself  to  the  study  of 
philosophy,  for  which  he  had  a  natural  bent.  In  person 
he  was  far  from  fulfilling  the  Athenian  ideal  of  beauty, 
being  short  of  stature,  corpulent,  with  protruding  eyes, 
upturned  nose,  large  mouth,  and  thick  lips.  His  domestic 
life  was  not  happy,  his  wife,  Xantippe,  being  a  noted 
shrew.  His  failure  to  provide  for  the  material  welfare  of 
his  family,  though  quite  natural  in  a  man  to  whom  all 
material  things  seemed  unessential,  must  have  sorely  tried 
her  patience.  But  Socrates  bore  her  scolding  with  resig- 
nation. Indeed,  he  seemed  to  regard  it  as  furnishing  an 
opportunity  to  practice  the  philosophic  patience  that  he 
preached. 

Socrates  believed  that  he  had  a  divine  call  to  "  convince 
men  of  ignorance  mistaking  itself  for  knowledge,  and  by 
so  doing  to  promote  their  intellectual  and  moral  develop- 

HIST.    OF    ED. 5  65 


66  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION' 

ment."  Like  many  other  philosophers,  he  spent  his  time 
in  the  streets,  markets,  and  other  public  places,  arguing 
with  any  one  who  would  stop  to  listen  or  converse.  This 
manner  of  teaching  was  common  in  Athens,  and  he  never 
lacked  hearers.  The  whole  atmosphere  of  the  classic  city 
was  charged  with  the  spirit  of  intellectual  activity  and 
philosophic  discussion.  Socrates  did  not  teach  positive 
doctrines,  but  assumed  ignorance  himself  in  order  to  con- 
vince others  of  ignorance.  By  a  series  of  suggestive 
questions  he  would  lead  his  pupils  or  opponents  into 
admissions  which  finally  established  the  truth  that  Soc- 
rates saw  at  the  outset.  This  is  known  as  the  "  So- 
cratic  Method,"  or  the  dialectical  method,  and  this  form 
of  inductive  teaching  was  an  important  contribution  to 
education. 

Although  Socrates  left  no  writings,  his  great-  pupils, 
Xenophon  and  Plato,  have  given  the  world  a  full  account 
of  his  teachings.  Plato  speaks  in  highest  terms  of  his 
moral  character,  declaring  that  "  he  was  not  of  this  world." 
Xenophon  also  adds  his  testimony  in  the  following  words : 
"  No  one  ever  knew  of  his  doing  or  saying  anything 
profane  or  unholy."  Socrates  believed  in  one  Supreme 
Being,  the  intelligent  Creator  of  the  universe.  He  also 
believed  in  the  immortality  of  the  soul.  These  doctrines 
were  altogether  contrary  to  Greek  polytheism,  the  prevail- 
ing religion  of  Athens,  and  they  prove  him  to  have  been 
far  in  advance  of  the  age  in  which  he  lived.  While  he 
established  no  school,  Socrates  nevertheless  must  ever  rank 
as  one  of  the  world's  greatest  teachers  and  thinkers. 

In  his  death  he  fully  exemplified  the  truth  of  his  own 
philosophy.  He  was  accused  of  corrupting  the  youth  and 
denying  the  deities,  and  was  condemned  to  die  by  drink- 
ing a  cup  of  hemlock.  He  calmly  submitted  to  his  fate, 


refusing  to  avail  himself  of  an  opportunity  to  escape.  Ac- 
cording to  the  account  given  in  Plato's  "  Phaedo,"  he  spent 
his  last  hours  discussing  with  the  friends  who  attended 
him  the  question  of  the  immortality  of  the  soul. 

PLATO  (B.C.  429-347) 

Plato  was  a  disciple  of  Socrates,  and  to  him  we  are 
chiefly  indebted  for  an  account  of  the  teachings  of  his 
great  master.  For  twenty  years  he  sat  at  the  feet  of  the 
philosopher,  and  drank  from  the  fountain  of  knowledge 
possessed  by  that  wonderful  man.  He  also  traveled  in 
other  lands,  particularly  Egypt  and  Italy,  in  pursuit  of 
knowledge.  He  became  one  of  the  most  remarkable 
scholars  and  philosophers,  not  only  of  antiquity,  but  of  all 
time.  When  forty  years  of  age  he  founded  a  school  at 
Athens,  though  it  is  not  as  a  teacher  that  he  is  chiefly 
known,  but  as  a  writer  and  sage.  "  Plato  among  the 
Greeks,  like  Bacon  among  the  moderns,  was  the  first  who 
conceived  a  method  of  knowledge."  His  great  work  is  his 
"  Republic,"  in  which  he  pictures  the  ideal  State  and  out- 
lines his  scheme  of  education,  which  is  built  on  ideals  of 
both  Spartan  and  Athenian  citizenship.  From  Sparta  comes 
the  thought  of  an  education  which  shall  be  controlled  by 
the  State  from  birth  ;  while  Athens  adds  the  aesthetical 
aspects  to  those  purely  physical. 

In  his  scheme  he  divided  the  people  into  the  following 
classes :  — 

1 .  The  common  people.     They  should  be  allowed  to  rise, 
but  no  education  is  provided  for  them  in  his  scheme. 

2.  The  guardians  or  citizens,    who    shall   study  music 
and  gymnastics.     Music  includes  literature,  that  is,  human 
culture  as  distinguished  from  scientific  knowledge.     Writ- 


68  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

ing  and  arithmetic  are  also  included  under  music,  the  latter 
not  being  studied  for  practical  purposes,  but  to  develop 
the  reason. 

3.  The  rulers,  who,  in  addition  to  the  preceding  sub- 
jects, shall  study  geometry,  astronomy,  rhetoric,  and 
philosophy. 

The  State  is  to  have  absolute  control  of  every  citizen ; 
it  shall  arrange  marriages,  destroy  weak  and  unpromising 
children,  and  remove  the  healthy  babes  at  birth  to  public 
nurseries,  where  mothers  may  care  for  the  children  in 
common,  but  will  not  recognize  or  take  special  interest  in 
their  own  children.  Boys  and  girls  are  to  be  educated 
alike.  Great  care  is  to  be  taken  that  nothing  mean  or  vile 
shall  be  shown  to  children ;  their  environments  shall  be 
beautiful  and  ennobling,  though  simple. 

From  birth  to  seven  years  of  age  the  child  is  to  have 
plenty  of  physical  exercise.  He  shall  hear  fairy  tales  and 
selections  from  the  poets,  but  careful  censorship  must  be 
placed  on  everything  presented  to  him.  Suitable  play- 
things are  to  be  provided,  precaution  taken  against  fear 
of  darkness,  and  by  gentleness  combined  with  firmness  a 
manly  spirit  is  to  be  produced.  Beauty  of  mind  and  body 
are  to  be  harmoniously  united. 

From  seven  to  thirteen  intellectual  as  well  as  physical 
activity  is  required. 

The  special  education  begins  at  twenty  by  the  selection 
of  the  most  promising  youths.  At  thirty  another  selec- 
tion of  those  able  to  continue  their  education  five  years 
more  is  made. 

Higher  mathematics,  astronomy,  harmony,  and  science 
constitute  the  work  of  the  first  ten  years,  and  philosophi- 
cal study  that  of  the  last  five.  Fifteen  years  then  are  to 
be  given  to  the  service  of  the  State,  after  which,  at  fifty, 


ATHENIAN  EDUCATORS  69 

the  student  may  return  to  the  study  of  philosophy  for 
the  remainder  of  his  life. 

Education  is  to  be  compulsory,  as  the  child  belongs  to 
the  State  and  not  to  the  parent. 

Plato  gave  predominance  to  intellectual  rather  than  to 
physical  culture,  as  he  said,  "  If  the  mind  be  educated  it 
will  take  care  of  the  body,  for  the  good  soul  improves  the 
body,  and  not  the  good  body  the  soul." 

He  taught  that  it  is  the  aim  of  education  to  bring  all 
of  the  powers  of  man  into  harmonious  cooperation. 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  Plato's  scheme  of  education 
centers  around  the  oriental  idea  that  man  belongs  to 
the  State,  and  the  main  purpose  of  education  is  to  fit 
him  to  serve  the  State.  And  Plato  clearly  set  forth 
how  the  education  which  he  demanded  should  be  attained, 
and  therefore  he  is  to  be  remembered  as  originating  the 
first  systematic  scheme  of  education  in  history. 

ARISTOTLE  (B.C.  384-322)  l 

•Aristotle  was  born  in  Stagira  in  Macedonia,  and  from 
this  fact  he  is  called  the  Stagirite.  For  twenty  years  he 
was  a  pupil  of  Plato,  as  Plato  had  been  of  Socrates.  Aris- 
totle was  not  only  one  of  the  greatest  philosophers  that 
ever  lived,  but  he  enjoyed  the  distinction  of  being  the 
teacher  and  chosen  counselor  of  Alexander  the  Great. 
Much  of  the  greatness  of  the  man  who  conquered  the 
world  and  "  wept  because  there  were  no  more  worlds  to 
conquer"  was  due  to  his  wise  teacher.  Alexander  loved 
and  revered  Aristotle  as  much  as  his  father,  declaring 
"that  he  was  indebted  to  the  one  for  living,  and  to  the 
other  for  living  well."  He  assisted  Aristotle  in  founding 
a  school  at  his  native  place,  Stagira. 

1  Brother  Azarias,  "  Essays  Philosophical." 


70  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

It  is  not  simply  as  the  teacher  of  Alexander  the 
Great  that  Aristotle  is  to  be  remembered  in  the  history 
of  education,  though  that  would  entitle  him  to  lasting 
fame.  After  the  education  of  Alexander  was  finished, 
Aristotle  went  to  Athens,  where  he  founded  the  Lyceum. 
Here  he  lectured  for  many  years,  in  the  morning  to 
his  riper  pupils  on  philosophical  subjects,  and  in  the 
evening  to  the  masses  on  such  topics  as  were  within 
their  comprehension  and  as  would  tend  to  elevate  them. 

His  pedagogy   may   be  briefly  outlined   as    follows :  — 

1.  Education  is  a  lifelong  task,  beginning  at  birth  and 
continuing  till   death.     The   first  seven   years  are  to  be 
spent  in  the  home  under  the  fostering  care  of  the  parents. 
During  this  period  the  child  is  to  have  no  severe  tasks, 
but  chief   attention  is  to  be  given   to   physical   develop- 
ment.    He  must  learn  obedience,  as  the  first  step  to  an 
ethical   life.     His   food   and   clothing   are   to  be   simple, 
and    his    toys    and    games   of   a   character  to   stimulate 
wholesome  activity.     At  the  age  of  seven  he  is  to  enter 
upon  the  direct   intellectual  training,   and  nothing   must 
interfere  with  this  during  the  next  seven  years.      From 
fourteen  to  twenty-one  the  education  is  to  include  such 
exercises   as   directly   prepare   for   life.     The    diet   is   to 
be  simple,  the  physical   training  severe,  for  the   double 
purpose   of    counteracting    the    tendencies    of    the    ado- 
lescent period,  and  of  preparing  for  war. 

2.  Education  includes  the  development  of  the  body, 
the   character,   and   the   intellect.      Courage,    endurance, 
self-denial,  temperance,  truthfulness,  and  justice  are  essen- 
tial characteristics  to  be  sought.  /The  purpose  of  instruc- 
tion is  to  develop  the  imperfect,  untrained  child  into  the 
well-rounded,  intelligent,  and  patriotic  citizen. 

3.  The  course  of  study,  which  begins  seriously  after 


ATHENIAN  EDUCATORS  71 

the  seventh  year,  includes  music,  gymnastics,  drawing, 
grammar,  rhetoric,  and  mathematics.  Later,  dialectics, 
philosophy,  and  political  science  are  to  be  added. 

4.  Woman  is  to  have  part  in  education  that  she  may 
properly  train    her  children,  and  may,  by  an   intelligent 
understanding  of  the  laws,  uphold  the  State. 

5.  Aristotle    considered    education   as    the   most    im- 
portant  and   most   difficult   of    all   problems.     He  based 
his  pedagogy  upon  a  knowledge  of  the  individual. 

6.  His  method  was  the  analytical.      He   began  with 
things  and  advanced  from  the  concrete  to  the  abstract. 

The  foregoing  will  show  that  Aristotle  began  the  study 
of  problems  that  still  occupy  the  minds  of  educational 
thinkers,  after  more  than  twenty-two  centuries  of  search 
for  the  truth.  Some  of  the  problems  he  discussed  have 
found  their  solution,  and  the  seed  sown  by  the  great  thinker 
has  come  to  fruitage.  Karl  Schmidt  says,  "  Aristotle  is 
the  intellectual  Alexander.  Rich  in  experience  and  pro- 
found in  speculation,  he  penetrates  all  parts  of  the  universe 
and  seeks  to  reduce  all  realities  to  concepts.  He  is  the 
most  profound  and  comprehensive  thinker  of  the  pre- 
Christian  world,  —  the  Hegel  of  classical  antiquity, — 
because,  like  Hegel,  he  seeks  to  unify  all  knowledge, 
brings  together  the  scattered  materials  of  the  present  into 
one  system,  constructs  in  a  wonderful  intellectual  temple 
the  psychical  and  physical  Cosmos,  the  universe  and  God, 
proclaims  the  destruction  of  an  earlier  culture  epoch,  and 
sets  in  motion  waves  in  the  ocean  of  history  that  are 
destined  to  influence  the  intellectual  life  of  all  centuries 
to  come.  .  .  .  Aristotle  stands  for  the  highest  intellectual 
summit  of  antiquity,  —  the  bridge  which  binds  the  Grecian 
to  the  modern  world, : —  the  philosophical  mouthpiece  and 
the  intellectual  master  of  twenty  centuries." 


CHAPTER   X 

SPARTA 

Literature.  —  (See  general  literature  for  Greece.)  Sankey,  Spartan 
and  Theban  Supremacies  ;  Smith,  History  of  Greece  ;  Plutarcli's  Lives ; 
Mombert,  Great  Lives  ;  Spofford,  Library  of  Historical  Characters. 


History.  —  Sparta  was  the  capital  of  Laconia,  the  south- 
ern province  of  Greece.  Its  inhabitants  consisted  of :  — 

1.  Citizens,   composed    of    nine   thousand    families    of 
nobles,  who  ruled  the  other  classes. 

2.  Perioeci^  composed  of    thirty  thousand  families  of 
freemen  who  lived  in   the  territory  surrounding  Sparta, 
but  who  were  subject  to  the  nobles. 

3.  Helots?  about  three  hundred  thousand  in  number, 
who  were  slaves. 

The  Perioeci  and  the  helots,  with  the  love  of  freedom 
characteristic  among  the  Greeks,  chafed  under  their  yoke 
of  subjugation,  and  eagerly  watched  for  opportunities  for 
revolt.  Only  by  an  exercise  of  superior  force  could  the 
nobles  maintain  their  supremacy,  and  they  were  obliged  to 

1  The  Perioeci  (dwellers  around)  were  the  older  population  of  the  land, 
who  inhabited  the  mountains  and  hillsides  about  Sparta.     They  were  farmers, 
and  they  also  worked  the  mines  and  quarries,  manufactured  articles  for  the 
Spartan  market,  and  carried  on  the  commerce.     Though  freemen,  they  were 
allowed  no  part  in  the  government,  could  not  bear  arms,  and  had  to  pay 
tribute  to  Sparta. 

2  The  Helots  were  probably  peasants  who  occupied  the  land  about  Helos, 
and,  defeated  in  war,  became  Spartan  subjects.     They  could  not  be  sold  or 
given  away,  but  belonged  to  the  inventory  of  the  farm. 

72 


SPARTA  73 

seek  by  martial  training  the  strength  they  lacked  in  num- 
bers. Hence  the  education  of  the  Spartan  youth  was  of 
necessity  military,  and  every  citizen  was  trained  to  become 
a  warrior. 

The  Spartans  were  dignified,  austere,  and  of  few  words, 
"  laconic  "  in  speech.  The  young  were  expected  to  be 
silent  in  the  presence  of  their  elders  except  when  ad- 
dressed. They  were  taught  to  give  way  to  their  seniors, 
especially  to  old  men,  whenever  they  met  upon  the  street  or 
in  a  public  place. 

The  Home.  —  The  child  was  left  in  charge  of  the  mother 
until  six  or  seven  years  of  age.  Toys  inciting  to  warlike 
sports  were  provided,  and  childhood  was  made  happy.  The 
father  usually  superintended  the  child's  training,  but  some- 
times an  aged  relative  assumed  the  responsibility.  The 
treatment  was  humane  and  intelligent.  From  the  first  the 
child  was  taught  implicit  obedience  and  modesty. 

The  Iliad  and  the  Odyssey  have  been  called  the  Bible  of 
the  Greeks,  and  children  early  learned  extracts  from  the 
works  of  the  great  poet,  Homer.  The  Spartan  mother  was 
highly  respected  by  her  husband  and  her  children,  and  she 
was  noted  for  her  chastity  and  nobility  of  character.  She 
entered  fully  into  the  Spartan  idea,  and  cheerfully  gave 
her  sons  to  her  country,  while  she  often  inspired  them  to 
deeds  of  bravery  and  patriotism.  The  lofty  and  self-sacri- 
ficing patriotism  of  the  Spartan  mother  is  illustrated  by  her 
words  upon  sending  her  son  to  battle,  — "  Return  either 
with  your  shield  or  on  it ! " 

It  is  said  that  weak  and  unpromising  children  were 
either  killed  as  soon  as  they  were  born,  or  abandoned  to 
the  wild  beasts  upon  the  mountains.  This  was  because 
the  State  would  assume  the  training  only  of  strong  chil- 
dren, such  as  were  likely  to  make  good  soldiers.  It  is 


74  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

probable  that  many  of  these  abandoned  children  were 
rescued  and  reared  by  the  lower  classes,  which  would 
partially  account  for  the  fierce  resistance  so  often  offered 
by  these  classes  to  those  who  deprived  them  of  liberty.  If 
such  an  inhuman  practice  had  been  encouraged  by  other 
nations  of  the  world,  many  of  the  greatest  benefactors 
of  the  race  would  have  been  consigned  to  an  untimely 
death,  for  some  of  the  noblest  men  that  have  ever  lived 
were  weak  in  infancy. 

Education.  —  At  six  or  seven  the  boy  was  taken  from 
the  home,  and  the  State  had  entire  jurisdiction  over  his 
education.  The  boys  were  placed  in  groups  in  charge  of 
young  men  who  were  responsible  for  their  education, 
which  was  almost  wholly  physical.  They  lived  on  very 
simple  food,  and  were  often  obliged  to  appease  hunger  by 
theft.  They  were  taught  that  crime  did  not  lie  in  the  com- 
mission of  the  offense,  but  in  its  detection.  Their  dress 
from  seven  to  twelve__consisted  of  a  long  coat  of  very 
coarse  material,  the  same  for  summer  and  winter.  They 
were  taught  to  bear  blows  without  a  murmur,  and  instances 
are  related  of  boys  being  whipped  to  death  without  cry- 
ing out. 

Children  sat  at  table  with  older  men  and  listened  to 
their  conversation,  but  they  were  never  allowed  to  speak 
except  in  answer  to  questions.  Thus  they  absorbed  wis- 
dom and  were  incited  to  deeds  of  bravery  by  the  stories  of 
heroism  related  by  their  seniors. 

The  State  furnished  barracks  poorly  provided  with  the 
comforts  of  life,  in  which  the  boys  slept  in  severe  weather  ; 
at  other  times  they  slept  in  the  open  air.  They  were 
wholly  separated  from  their  homes,  and  completely  under 
control  of  the  State.  The  purpose  was  to  secure  strong, 
beautiful,  and  supple  bodies,  inured  to  hardship,  as  a 


SPARTA  75 

preparation  for  the  life  of  the  soldier.  The  only  intellec- 
tual education  was  music,  which  consisted  in  playing  the 
lyre  as  an  accompaniment  to  the  dance.  Reading  and 
writing  were  despised  as  being  fit  only  for  slaves. 

At  the  age  of  twelve  the  boy  exchanged  the  long  coat 
for  the  mantle,  thereby  entering  upon  manhood.  From 
this  time  until  the  age  of  thirty,  much  the  same  form  of 
training  was  continued,  though  it  became  more  definitely 
military.  At  thirty  the  Spartan  youth  became  a  citizen 
and  was  expected  to  marry.  Girls  also  received  gymnas- 
tic training,  in  many  cases  with  the  boys.  The  purpose  of 
this  was  to  develop  strong  and  beautiful  wives  and  mothers. 
The  effect  of  this  coeducation  of  the  sexes  was  in  the 
highest  degree  salutary,  impurity  among  women  being 
unknown  in  Sparta.  We  have  already  noted  the  patriotism 
of  the  Spartan  mother.  Woman  was  highly  esteemed  in 
the  home.  Her  praises  and  her  reproofs  were  alike 
respected,  and  all  her  opinions  bore  much  weight. 

Criticism  of  Spartan  Education. —  i.  It  produced  men 
and  women  of  beautiful  physique. 

2.  It  inculcated  obedience,  politeness,  modesty,  sobriety, 
respect  for  the  aged,  courage,  and  patriotism. 

3.  It  checked  luxury  and  extravagance. 

4.  On  the  other  hand,  it  gave  little  attention  to  intel- 
lectual training,   hence  it  produced  few  men   of   lasting 
fame. 

5.  Its  aim  was  martial  supremacy,  and  this  attained,  the 
State  fell  into  a  hasty  decline  because  of  the  instability  of 
such  a  foundation. 

6.  It  excluded  a  large  part  of  the  inhabitants  from  its 
benefits,  only  thejiobles  being  included. 

7.  It  was  selfish  because  it  trained  for  Sparta  and  not 
for  Greece,  or  for  humanity. 


76  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION* 

8.  It  taught  the  duty  of  man  to  the  State,  and  not  the 
duty  of  man  to  man. 

9.  It  took  boys  at  an  early  age  away  from  the  influences 
of  home,  thus  robbing  the  parents  of  the  sacred  preroga- 
tive of  directing  the  education  of  their  offspring. 

10.  It  produced  men  cruel  in  battle  and  revengeful  in 
victory,  men  incapable  of  cultivating  the  arts  of  peace. 

LYCURGUS 

There  is  so  much  that  is  mythical  and  uncertain  con- 
cerning Lycurgus  that  many  have  doubted  whether  he  ever 
lived.  Curtius,  however,  says,  "  There  really  lived  in  the 
ninth  century  B.C.  a  legislator  of  the  name  of  Lycurgus." 
Lycurgus  formed  the  constitution  which  gave  Sparta  its 
peculiar  institutions,  and  which  established  its  place  in 
history.  His  laws  were  intended  to  check  luxury  and  to 
inculcate  the  simplest  habits.  Some  of  his  important  laws 
led  to  the  introduction  of  the  following  customs  :  — 

1.  All  the  men  ate  at  common  tables,  fifteen  at  a  table. 

2.  Children  sat   at  these   tables,  but  were  required  to 
maintain  silence   save   when   addressed.     They  were  not 
allowed  to  ask  for  food.     The  object  was  to  teach  them 
good  manners,  to  inculcate  implicit  obedience,  and  to  im- 
part to  them  the  wisdom  of  the  Spartan  fathers. 

3.  The  food  was  of  the  simplest  kind. 

4.  Sparta  was  divided  into  nine  thousand  parts,  a  part 
for  each  of  the  nine  thousand  citizens,  or  noble  families. 
The  provinces  under  Spartan  rule  were  divided  into  thirty 
thousand  parts,  a  part  for  each  Perioeci  family. 

5.  Iron  was  made  the  only  money,  so  that  the  people 
could  not  become  rich ;  for  its  great  weight  rendered  bur- 
densome the  possession  of  a  considerable  amount. 

6.  All  children  belonged  to  the  State,  to   which   only 


SPARTA  77 

soldiers  were  valuable,  therefore  weak  or  deformed  children 
were  cast  out.  Marriage  was  also  controlled  by  the  State. 
Lycurgus  exerted  a  great  influence  upon  Sparta,  and  his 
laws  were  responsible  for  her  peculiar  political  system  and 
her  resulting  greatness. 

PYTHAGORAS 

Pythagoras,  though  not  a  Spartan,  is  associated  with 
southern  Greece.  Little  is  known  of  his  early  life.  He 
was  born  on  the  island  of  Samos,  about*  B.C.  582.  He  was 
familiar  with  the  Ionic  philosophy,  and  probably  visited 
Egypt  for  study,  a  custom  common  among  scholars  of  that 
time.  Such  a  visit  would  in  part  explain  his  knowledge  of 
mathematics,  as  the  Egyptians  had  long  been  masters  in 
that  science.  One  of  his  teachers  was  Thales,  the  father 
of  philosophy.  The  fundamental  thought  of  the  Pythag- 
orean philosophy  was  the  idea  of  proportion  and  harmony. 

"  Through  number  alone,  the  quantitative  relations  of 
things,  extension,  magnitude,  figure  (triangular,  quadran- 
gular, cubic),  combination,  distance,  etc.,  obtain  their 
peculiar  character ;  the  forms  and  proportions  of  things 
can  all  be  reduced  to  number.  Therefore,  it  was  concluded, 
since  without  form  and  proportion  nothing  can  exist, 
number  must  be  the  principle  of  things  themselves,  as  well 
as  the  order  in  which  they  manifest  themselves  in  the 
world."  (Schwegler's  "  History  of  Philosophy.") 

While  mathematics  was  the  central  idea  of  his  system, 
medicine,  physics,  and  philosophy  were  also  taught  in  his 
school.  He  did  the  world  great  service  in  the  discovery 
of  the  so-called  Pythagorean  theorem  in  geometry,  that 
the  square  of  the  hypotenuse  of  a  right-angled  triangle  is 
equal  to  the  sum  of  the  squares  of  the  other  two  sides. 


CHAPTER   XI 

ROME 

Literature.  —  Bryce,  The  Holy  Roman  Empire;  Bury,  The  Roman 
Empire ;  Church,  Pictures  from  Roman  Life  and  Story ;  Clarke,  Ten 
Great  Religions ;  Gibbon,  Decline  and  Fall  of  Roman  Empire ;  Lord, 
Beacon  Lights ;  Capes,  Roman  Empire ;  Merivale,  History  of  the 
Romans ;  Shumway,  A  Day  in  Ancient  Rome ;  Mommsen,  History  of 
Rome ;  Liddell,  History  of  Rome ;  Ploetz,  Epitome  of  Universal  His- 
tory ;  Oilman,  Story  of  Rome ;  Collins,  Ancient  Classics ;  Monroe, 
Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education. 


The  Age  of  Augustus.  —  The  history  of  Rome  covers  a 
period  of  a  thousand  years.  From  the  little  village  on  the 
Palatine  Hill  Rome  grew  to  be  the  mightiest  empire  of 
the  world.  The  "  Age  of  Augustus  "  represents  not  only 
the  summit  of  military  glory,  but  also  the  highest  civili- 
zation, and  the  noblest  ideals  of  the  Roman  people.  It 
was  the  age  of  Vergil,  Horace,  Ovid,  Livy,  and  Seneca. 
Rome  was  at  peace  with  the  world,  and  therefore  had  time 
to  devote  to  art,  literature,  and  other  intellectual  pursuits. 
It  was  during  this  period  that  Christ  was  born. 

Like  Sparta,  Rome  for  a  long  time  maintained  her 
supremacy  by  force  of  arms,  and  therefore  encouraged 
physical  education.  But  when  she  became  mistress  of  the 
world,  and  came  in  contact  with  the  culture  of  the  Greeks, 
she  began  to  feel  the  need  of  an  intellectual  and  aesthetic 
development.  Accordingly  it  became  the  fashion  to  study 
Greek,  to  bring  teachers  from  Athens  to  Rome,  and  to 
send  young  men  to  Athens  to  study.  The  Roman  Empire 
was  therefore  the  medium  through  which  Grecian  culture 

78 


ROME  79 

was  transmitted  to  the  western  world,  and  during  the 
Augustan  Age  the  center  of  learning  was  transferred  from 
Athens  to  Rome. 

Gibbon  says,  "  The  first  seven  centuries  were  filled  with 
a  rapid  succession  of  triumphs;  but  it  was  reserved  for 
Augustus  to  relinquish  the  ambitious  design  of  subduing 
the  whole  earth,  and  to  introduce  a  spirit  of  moderation 
into  the  public  councils."1  The  Augustan  Age  shows 
Rome  at  her  best,  and  a  study  of  the  educational  system 
at  that  time  will  be  most  fruitful  for  the  student  of 
pedagogy. 

Geography  and  History.  —  We  have  seen  that  Rome 
began  with  a  small  territory  in  the  center  of  Italy,  and 
that  province  after  province  was  added,  until  in  the  time 
of  Augustus  she  ruled  the  world.  Italy,  the  center  of  the 
empire,  has  a  diversified  surface,  a  mild  climate,  and  a 
fertile  soil.  In  the  time  of  Augustus,  the  Roman  Empire 
embraced  all  of  the  border  of  the  Mediterranean,  extended 
as  far  north  as  the  North  Sea,  as  far  east  as  the  Euphrates, 
as  far  south  as  the  Sahara,  and  west  to  the  Atlantic. 
With  the  great  Mediterranean  entirely  under  its  control, 
including  the  seas,  bays,  and  rivers  tributary  to  it;  with 
its  rich  territories ;  and  with  its  vast  population,  which 
represented  most  of  the  enterprise  and  civilization  of  the 
world,  —  this  great  empire  possessed  wonderful  advantages 
for  the  spread  of  Christianity,  for  the  dissemination  of 
intelligence,  and  for  the  improvement  of  the  human  race. 

The  government  of  the  Romans  was  generally  some 
form  of  republic,  the  people  always  being  jealous  of  their 
rights.  Their  religion  took  on  gross  forms  of  idolatry, 
for  they  readily  adopted  and  worshiped  the  gods  of  the 
Grecians,  Egyptians,  and  other  conquered  peoples.  Tem- 

1  "  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire,"  Vol.  I,  p.  2. 


80  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

pies  to  Faith,  Hope,  Concord,  and  other  virtues  were 
erected  and  maintained.  The  Romans  were  very  super- 
stitious. These  facts  have  a  bearing  upon  Christian  edu- 
cation, and  will  explain  some  of  the  chief  difficulties  which 
it  had  to  encounter. 

The  Home.  —  While  in  Athens  the  father  had  charge  of 
the  education  of  the  boy  in  his  early  years,  in  Rome  that 
duty  devolved  almost  entirely  upon  the  mother.  In  early 
Roman  history  the  matron  was  celebrated  for  her  virtues 
—  fidelity  to  her  husband,  love  for  her  children,  and  queenly 
guardianship  of  the  sacred  precincts  of  the  home.  The 
name  of  the  Roman  matron  became  a  synonym  of  all 
that  is  noble,  wifely,  and  motherly  in  the  home.  Without 
doubt  the  character  had  sadly  deteriorated  at  the  period  of 
which  we  write,  but  there  still  remained  with  many  the 
lofty  ideals  which  had  been  fostered  in  earlier  times. 

The  husband  was  the  head  of  the  house,  but  to  the  wife 
was  committed  the  care  of  the  children  and  their  instruc- 
tion for  the  first  six  or  seven  years  of  their  lives.  She 
taught  them  strict  obedience  and  politeness,  and  instructed 
them  in  the  "  Twelve  Tables  of  Roman  Law." 1 

The  mother  also  took  great  pains  to  teach  her  children 
correct  pronunciation.  She  taught  them  their  letters, — 


1  The  "Twelve  Tables  "  were  formulated  about  B.C.  450.  They  constituted 
the  code  of  written  law,  and  were  written  or  engraved  on  tables  of  wood.  They 
settled  usages  long  in  practice,  but  never  before  written,  defining  the  rights 
of  plebeians  and  patricians.  They  were  agreed  to  only  after  ten  years  of  dis- 
pute and  mutual  concession.  They  resembled  Solon's  laws,  owing,  doubtless, 
to  the  commission  which  was  sent  to  Greece  to  study  the  laws  of  that  country. 
These  tables  were  destroyed  when  the  Gauls  sacked  Rome  (B.C.  390),  but 
their  contents  had  been  widely  committed  to  memory,  and  were  handed  down 
from  generation  to  generation.  The  mothers  saw  to  it  that  these  laws  were 
early  taught  to  their  children,  who  thus  came  to  venerate  them  and  to  have 
respect  tor  authority. 


ROME  8 1 

first  the  name  and  then  the  form,  a  practice  which  is  peda: 
gogically  false,  as  Quintilian  pointed  out.  She  also  taught 
them  poems  from  the  great  masters.  In  taking  pains  with 
pronunciation  she  prepared  the  way  for  later  training  in 
oratory,  which  was  the  most  important  study  in  Roman 
education. 

Only  when  Rome  had  begun  to  decay  did  mothers  commit 
the  training  of  their  children  to  nurses  and  slaves.  When 
Rome  was  at  her  best,  the  child  grew  up  in  an  atmosphere 
of  love  under  direct  care  of  the  mother,  who  shaped  his 
morals  and  guided  his  religious  life  as  well  as  his  early 
mental  development.  Around  the  mother  centered  all  that 
was  ennobling  and  elevating  in  the  first  seven  years  of  the 
child's  life.  The  father  had  but  little  to  do  with  this 
period,  and  did  not  interfere  with  the  mother's  work.  His 
duty  lay  in  public  life  ;  hers  lay  within  the  home,  and 
well  did  she  meet  her  responsibilities  until  the  time  of  her 
debasement  with  all  the  other  elements  of  Roman  society. 

Elementary  Education.  —  At  six  or  seven  years  of  age 
the  child  was  sent  to  school  in  charge  of  a  slave,  who  car- 
ried his  books  and  protected  him  from  harm.  This  was  in 
imitation  of  the  practice  in  Athens,  where  the  pedagogue 
performed  a  like  office.  But  the  duties  of  the  Roman  slave 
do  not  seem  to  have  been  as  responsible  as  those  of  the 
Athenian  pedagogue.  As  we  have  seen,  in  Rome  the 
mothers  looked  after  the  morals  of  their  children  with 
great  care,  and  the  attendant  of  the  child  to  school  was 
regarded  as  but  little  else  than  a  servant.  In  some  of  the 
wealthier  and  more  aristocratic  families,  however,  in  addi- 
tion to  the  slave  who  performed  the  menial  duties  men- 
tioned, there  was  also  a  pedagogue  who  attended  the  youth 
to  school  and  to  the  theater,  superintended  his  games,  and, 
in  short,  accompanied  him  wherever  he  went.  This  peda- 

HIST.   OF  ED.  —  6 


82  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

gogue  was  intrusted  with  full  power  to  discipline  and  to 
direct  the  morals  of  his  charge.  In  some  cases  several 
boys  were  placed  in  the  care  of  the  same  pedagogue. 
On  the  other  hand,  it  often  happened  that  a  boy  had  a 
whole  retinue  of  slaves,  each  having  his  special  duty  to 
perform. 

The  schools  were  in  charge  of  literators,  usually  men  of 
little  culture  and  no  social  standing.  These  institutions 
were  public,  though  supported  by  private  means.  The 
discipline  was  severe,  strict  obedience  being  exacted  by 
the  teacher,  who  made  use  of  the  rod  when  he  thought  it 
necessary.  The  subjects  taught  were  reading,  writing,  and 
arithmetic.  Great  care  was  taken  with  pronunciation,  just 
as  had  been  done  in  the  early  years  under  the  mother's 
instruction.  In-  writing,  the  characters  were  traced  with 
the  stylus  on  waxed  tablets.  Arithmetic  was  learned  for 
its  utility.  Indeed,  the  whole  purpose  of  the  schools  was 
to  prepare  the  children  for  practical  life.  The  easier  poets 
were  read,  explained,  and  committed  to  memory,  not  so 
much  for  their  content  as  to  fit  youth  for  public  speaking. 
Obedience,  politeness,  modesty,  cleanliness,  and  respect 
for  teachers  were  virtues  insisted  upon.  These  schools, 
which  covered  the  instruction  of  children  from  five  to 
twelve  years  of  age,  did  not,  as  already  intimated,  reach 
the  very  highest  classes,  who  preferred  to  employ  private 
tutors. 

Secondary  Education.  —  At  twelve  the  boy  entered  a 
school  taught  by  an  educated  man,  called  literatus.  Many 
of  the  teachers  of  this  class  were  Greeks.  Here,  in  addition 
to  the  studies  of  the  elementary  school,  the  pupils  were 
taught  the  Greek  and  Latin  languages  ;  and  the  poets, 
history,  oratory,  philosophy,  and  criticism  were  also  studied. 
The  school  of  the  literatus  was  much  better  than  that  of 


ROME  83 

the  literator,  but  it  reached  only  a  limited  number  of  the 
Roman  youth. 

Higher  Education.  —  Upon  entering  his  sixteenth  year, 
the  boy  was  inducted  with  ceremony  into  the  dignity  of 
manhood,  and  was  clothed  with  the  toga  virilis,  the 
dress  of  men.  He  now  chose  his  calling  and  began 
definite  preparation  for  it.  Five  vocations  were  open  to 
him, — namely,  oratory,  politics,  arms,  law,  and  agriculture. 
Those  without  talent  or  inclination  for  any  of  the  others 
devoted  themselves  to  agriculture.  They  were  taken  to 
the  farms,  where  they  received  definite  instruction  in  the 
principles  and  practices  of  this  occupation.  To  those  who 
chose  oratory,  politics,  or  law,  were  assigned  persons  ex- 
perienced in  their  respective  fields,  and  the  boys  were 
taken  to  the  forum,  the  senate,  and  other  places  where 
they  could  hear  renowned  orators  and  become  familiar 
with  public  life.  They  had  also  definite  instruction  in 
their  chosen  branch.  Those  who  entered  the  army  were 
placed  in  charge  of  military  officers,  who  taught  them 
military  tactics  and  the  practical  duties  of  life  in  camp. 
These  learners  also  gave  attention  to  oratory  and  other 
intellectual  studies. 

It  will  thus  appear  that  in  their  schools,  as  in  life, 
the  Romans  were  thoroughly  practical.  Each  boy  was 
carefully  prepared  for  the  life  which  he  had  chosen,  by 
being  inducted  into  it  during  his  school  course.  Cicero 
asked  the  question,  "  What  have  we  to  learn?"  and 
answered  it,  "  To  honor  arid  strengthen  the  State,  in  order 
that  we  may  become  the  rulers  of  the  world."  Roman 
parents  demanded  that  their  children  should  be  trained  in 
the  practical  duties  of  life,  in  order  that  they  might  know 
how  to  become  rich.  Therefore  all  training  for  children 
was  in  this  direction. 


84  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

While  this  in  general  was  the  purpose  of  education,  the 
Romans  had  their  ideal  of  what  an  educated  man  should 
be,  and  that  ideal  found  its  expression  in  the  name  of 
orator.  He  who  was  the  best  orator  was  the  best  educated 
man.  The  schools,  however,  were  for  boys,  little  account 
being  taken  of  the  education  of  girls  except  in  house- 
hold duties.  Still,  women  were  more  respected,  and  had 
wider  privileges  than  they  had  before  enjoyed.  Most  of 
the  wealthy  citizens  employed  Greek  tutors  for  their  sons, 
and  sought  to  ape  Grecian  manners  and  culture.  Educa- 
tion was  completed  by  study  in  Athens  and  by  travel  — 
advantages  within  reach  only  of  the  very  wealthy. 

Criticism  of  Roman  Education.  —  i.  It  took  great  care  to 
instill  respect  for  law  and  obedience  to  parental  and  civil 
authority. 

2.  It  honored  the  home   and   taught   respect   for   the 
mother.     In  this,  Rome  took  a  great  step  in  advance  over 
many  nations  of  antiquity. 

3.  It  was  not  a  State  institution,  and  therefore  could  not 
offer  equal  advantages  to  all. 

4.  Its  end  was  to  prepare  the  youth  for  practical  life 
and  to  fit  him  for  the  acquirement  of  wealth,  rather  than 
for  the  development  of  all  the  human  powers. 

5.  It  was  superficial,  and  sought  to  apply  Greek  culture 
to  Roman  conditions  and  character. 

6.  It  did  not  take  a  strong  hold  upon  the  Roman  people 
so  as  to  shape  the  course  of  the  nation. 

7.  It  ignored  the  claims  of  the  masses,  including  women, 
to  equal  education  and  equal  rights. 


CHAPTER   XII 

ROMAN  EDUCATORS 

Literature.  —  (See  Literature,  Chapter  XI.)  Forsyth,  Life  of  Cicero  ; 
Spofford,  Library  of  Historical  Characters;  Watson,  Quintilian's  Insti- 
tutes (Pedagogy,  in  Bks.  I  &  II). 


CICERO1  (B.C.  106-43) 

CICERO  was  born  B.C.  106,  of  noble  parents.  As  a 
boy  he  had  the  advantage  of  the  best  schools  and 
teachers  that  Rome  could  furnish.  Later  he  studied 
at  Athens,  under  the  greatest  Greek  masters,  and  be- 
came proficient  in  the  Greek  language.  According  to 
the  common  practice  among  the  better  classes  in  Rome,  he 
spent  some  time  in  travel  to  complete  his  education,  visit- 
ing Egypt,  Asia  Minor,  and  other  parts  of  the  known  world. 
But  Cicero's  education  can  hardly  be  said  to  have  been 
"  completed  "  as  long  as  he  lived,  for  he  remained  a  student 
even  in  the  midst  of  his  most  exacting  duties  of  State,  and 
often  employed  teachers,  especially  in  oratory.  Forsyth 
says  of  him,  "  Philosophy  and  oratory  seem  to  have  been 
the  two  chief  objects  of  his  study ;  but  if  of  any  man 
before  Bacon  appeared  that  might  be  said  which  the 
great  master  of  modern  philosophy  claimed  for  himself, 
that  he  '  had  taken  all  knowledge  for  his  province,'  it 
might  be  truly  declared  of  the  youthful  Cicero.  His 
appetite  for  knowledge  was  insatiable,  and  his  desire  for 
distinction  boundless."  2 

1  Forsyth,  "  Life  of  Cicero."     This  is  a  very  complete,  just,  and  discrimi- 
nating treatment  of  Cicero  and  his  relation  to  the  times  in  which  he  lived. 

2  "  Life  of  Cicero,"  Vol.  I,  p.  30. 


86  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION- 

Becoming  an  advocate  in  Rome,  he  devoted  himself 
chiefly  to  the  defense  of  men  high  in  position,  often  those 
who  were  charged  with  bribery,  extortion,  or  other  abuse  of 
political  trust.  Some  of  his  finest  orations  were  delivered 
on  these  occasions.  In  the  meantime  he  lost  no  oppor- 
tunity to  advance  his  own  political  interests.  He  was  elected 
to  one  office  after  another  until  he  reached  the  height  of 
his  political  ambition,  —  the  consulship  of  Rome,  the  loftiest 
position  attainable  by  the  Roman  citizen.  As  consul  he 
devoted  himself  with  such  zeal,  integrity,  and  success  as  to 
win  the  title  "  Father  of  his  Country."  While  he  held  this 
office  he  exposed  the  conspiracy  of  Catiline  and  saved 
Rome  from  civil  war.  He  conducted  the  office  with 
honesty  and  efficiency.  Indeed,  at  a  time  of  great  corrup- 
tion, Cicero  stands  out  during  his  entire  life  of  nearly 
sixty-four  years  as  the  purest  patriot,  the  broadest-minded 
statesman,  the  noblest  man  of  the  age.  His  honesty  in 
public  or  private  life  is  unquestioned.  Of  his  intellectual 
greatness  Forsyth  says,  "The  greatness  of  his  intellect 
dwarfed  that  of  every  other  man  alive."  l 

That  he  was  vain  of  his  accomplishments  admits  of  no 
doubt.  That  he  also  sometimes  lacked  moral  courage 
and  was  vacillating  seems  also  true.  But  he  was  incor- 
ruptible in  a  corrupt  age ;  above  reproach  when  impure 
life  was  the  rule ;  and  when  treason  was  common,  he 
remained  a  firm  patriot.  His  celebrated  "  Philippics  "  were 
delivered  against  practices  which  indicated  the  approach- 
ing ruin  of  the  republic.  That  ruin  was  complete  when 
the  Second  Triumvirate  was  formed,  —  an  event  which 
also  sealed  the  doom  of  Cicero.  Upon  learning  that  he 
was  proscribed,  Cicero  attempted  to  escape  from  Italy,  but 
was  overtaken  and  assassinated.  His  head  and  hands 

1  Vol.  II,  p.  213. 


ROMAN  EDUCATORS  87 

were  carried  to  Rome  and  presented  to  Antony,  who  gave 
the  head  to  his  wife,  Fulvia,  whose  crimes  Cicero  had 
often  rebuked.  Forsyth  says,  "  She  took  it,  and  placing 
it  on  her  lap,  addressed  it  as  if  it  were  alive,  in  words  of 
bitter  insult.  She  dragged  out  the  tongue,  whose  sarcasms 
she  had  so  often  felt,  and  with  feminine  rage  pierced  it 
with  her  bodkin.  It  was  then  taken  and  nailed  to  the 
rostra,  together  with  the  hands,  to  molder  there  in 
mockery  of  the  triumphs  of  his  eloquence,  of  which  that 
spot  had  so  often  been  the  scene.  A  sadder  sight  was 
never  gazed  upon  in  Rome."  l 

Cicero's  Pedagogy.  —  It  is  not  as  a  teacher,  but  as  a 
writer,  that  Cicero  demands  a  place  in  educational  history. 
His  writings  furnish  the  finest  examples  of  Latin  style, 
and  his  orations  are  studied  for  their  classic  beauty  and 
rhetorical  finish.  He  wrote  many  philosophical  works,  in 
which  are  set  forth  advanced  ideas  on  education.  Espe- 
cially was  he  in  advance  of  his  age  in  regard  to  the  pun- 
ishment of  children.  He  held  that  corporal  punishment 
should  be  resorted  to  only  when  all  else  has  failed ;  that 
the  child  should  not  be  degraded  in  the  mode  of  punish- 
ment ;  that  punishment  should  never  be  administered  in 
anger,  should  be  deferred  until  ample  time  for  reflection 
has  been  allowed  to  both  teacher  and  pupil ;  and  that 
reasons  for  it  should  be  given,  so  that,  if  possible,  the 
child  may  be  led  to  see  the  justice  of  the  punishment 
inflicted.  The  teachings  of  Cicero  on  this  subject  are  of 
great  pedagogical  importance,  and  they  have  at  last  come 
to  -be  recognized  in  the  school  practice  of  the  present  day. 

While  these  were  Cicero's  most  important  pedagogical 
teachings,  he  also  taught  many  other  truths  valuable  in 
education.  Among  them  are  these  :  that  education  begins 
1  Vol.  II,  p.  317. 


88  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

in  childhood,  and  is  a  steady  growth  throughout  life ;  that 
memory  should  be  cultivated  by  learning  extracts  from 
classic  authors ;  that  great  care  should  be  taken  to  make 
the  amusements  and  environments  of  the  child  such  as  to 
elevate  and  refine,  as  well  as  properly  to  develop  its 
powers ;  that  at  the  suitable  time  some  calling  should  be 
chosen  for  which  the  youth  has  evident  fitness ;  that  re- 
ligion is  the  basis  of  morals,  therefore  careful  attention 
should  be  given  to  religious  instruction. 

SENECA  (B.C.  3-A.D.  65) 

Seneca  was  one  of  the  most  distinguished  men  that 
Rome  produced.  Even  as  a  boy  he  showed  remarkable 
talent,  and  his  father  furnished  him  the  best  educational 
opportunities  by  placing  him  under  the  greatest  masters 
in  the  city.  He  also  had  the  benefit  of  travel  in  Greece 
and  Egypt,  after  which  he  practiced  law  in  Rome.  The 
student  of  education  is  interested  in  Seneca  chiefly  as  the 
tutor  of  Nero,  who  was  committed  to  his  charge  at  the  age 
of  eleven.  Without  doubt  the  lad  had  already  formed 
vicious  habits,  as  his  teacher  had  great  trouble  in  manag- 
ing him ;  nor  did  Seneca  eradicate  those  evil  tendencies 
which  bore  such  terrible  fruit  in  Nero's  later  years. 

Nero  retained  his  love  for  his  teacher  for  a  long  time, 
keeping  him  as  a  trusted  counselor  for  several  years. 
Seneca  drew  up  all  of  Nero's  state  papers,  among  others 
one  defending  the  crime  of  matricide,  Nero  having  put  his 
own  mother  to  death.  This  brought  deserved  odium 
upon  Seneca's  name.  It  indicates  that  he  was  a  time- 
server,  lacking  moral  independence  and  firmness.  This 
may  explain  his  failure  in  the  training  of  his  royal  pupil. 
Nero  himself  wearied  of  his  old  teacher  and  friend,  and 


ROMAN  EDUCATORS  89 

condemned  him  to  death.  Seneca,  however,  committed 
suicide,  a  mode  of  death  quite  in  accord-  with  his  Stoic 
philosophy. 

Seneca  was  the  most  eminent  writer,  rhetorician,  and 
orator  of  his  time.  He  anticipated  many  modern  ethical 
teachings,  and  in  some  of  his  writings  we  find  a  strong 
religious  sentiment,  quite  like  that  of  Christianity,  leading 
one  to  think  that  he  may  have  been  influenced  by  Christ, 
and  his  disciples,  with  whom  he  was  contemporary.  On 
the  other  hand,  some  of  his  teachings  are  decidedly  repul- 
sive to  Christianity. 

Seneca's  Pedagogy.  —  i.  Like  Cicero,  he  believed  that 
punishment  should  be  mild  and  reasonable.  "Who  con- 
demns quickly,  condemns  willingly  ;  and  who  punishes  too 
much,  punishes  improperly." 

2.  The  office  of  education  is  to  correct  the  evil  tenden- 
cies in  the  child. 

3.  The  character  of  each  child  must  be  studied,  and 
each    individual    should   be    developed   according   to    his 
peculiarities. 

4.  Do  not  flatter  the  child,  but  teach  him  truthfulness, 
modesty,  and  respect  for  his  elders. 

5.  Take  great  care  that  the  environment  of  the  child  is 
elevating,  and  allow  only  pure  and  ennobling  examples  to 
be  reflected  before  him. 

6.  Give  the  child  but  few  studies,  in  order  that  he  may 
be  thorough  and  acquire  right  habits  of  learning. 

7.  The  office  of  teacher  is  one  of  the  most  important  of 
all  offices.     "  What  the  teacher,  who  instructs  us  in  the 
sciences,    imparts   to    us  in  noble  effort    and   intellectual 
culture,    is  worth    more   than    he    receives ;    for,  not  the 
matter,   but  the  trouble ;   not  the    desert,    but    only    the 
labor,  is  paid  for.  .  .  .     Such  a  man,  who  consecrates  his 


90  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

whole  being  to  our  good,  and  who  awakens  our  dormant 
faculties,  is  deserving  all  the  esteem  that  we  give  a  benevo- 
lent physician  or  our  most  loved  and  dearest  kindred." 


QUINTILIAN 

No  other  Roman  contributed  so  much  pedagogy  to  the 
world  as  Quintilian.  He  was  born  in  Spain,  but  early 
moved  to  Rome,  in  order  to  be  trained  in  the  atmosphere 
of  culture  which  that  city  alone  afforded.  His  education 
was  conducted  by  his  father,  a  celebrated  rhetorician,  to 
whom  he  owed  the  particular  direction  of  his  powers 
which  afterward  made  him  so  famous.  He  chose  the 
law  as  a  profession,  because  it  offered  the  best  opportunity 
for  the  exercise  of  oratory.  Not  finding  the  practice  of 
law  congenial,  he  soon  abandoned  it,  and  devoted  his  time 
to  teaching.  He  founded  a  school  at  Rome,  and  con- 
ducted it  with  great  success  for  twenty  years,  having 
for  pupils  children  from  the  most  distinguished  patrician 
families.  Among  these  were  the  grandnephews  of  Domi- 
tian,  possible  heirs  to  the  throne.  This  was  the  best 
school  in  Rome  at  that  time.  Vespasian  honored  Quin- 
tilian by  creating  for  him  a  chair  of  rhetoric  and  con- 
ferring upon  him  the  title  "  Professor  of  Oratory."  This 
is  the  first  instance  in  history  of  State  endowment  of 
a  chair  for  teaching  a  specific  subject.  Royal  recognition 
was  not  without  effect  upon  the  fortunes  of  Quintilian,  as 
it  placed  him  in  the  front  rank  of  the  teachers  of  Rome. 

1  Authorities  differ  as  to  the  dates  of  Quintilian's  birth  and  death,  placing 
his  birth  at  from  A.D.  35  to  42,  and  his  death  from  A.D.  95  to  1 20.  Drieser, 
who  is  perhaps  the  best  authority,  places  his  birth  at  A.D.  35,  but  does  not  fix 
the  date  of  his  death,  which,  however,  was  probably  much  later  than  A.D.  95, 
as  he  lived  to  a  ripe  old  age. 


ROMAN  EDUCATORS  91 

This,  together  with  his  subject,  the  teaching  and  mastery 
of  which  were  considered  by  the  Romans  to  be  the  climax 
of  education,  enabled  him  to  wrest  supremacy  from  the 
Greek  teachers  who  so  long  had  enjoyed  a  monopoly  of 
teaching  in  the  city. 

When  fifty-three  years  of  age,  Ouintiliari  retired  from 
his  school,  and  devoted  himself  to  authorship.  In  the  first 
two  books  of  his  great  work,  "  Institutes  of  Oratory,"  l  he 
sets  forth  his  ideas  on  education.  This  is  the  most  remark- 
able treatise  on  education  bequeathed  to  us  by  antiquity. 

He  taught  that  as  oratory  was  the  climax  of  Roman 
education,  especial  attention  should  be  given  to  it.  He 
was  not  in  sympathy  with  the  prevailing  use  that  was  made 
of  oratory.  Oratorical  contests  were  frequent,  and  they 
excited  popular  interest.  Courts,  lawyers,  and  public 
speakers  resorted  to  all  the  tricks  of  speech  to  win  popular 
favor,  and  audiences  demanded  something  startling,  dra- 
matic, and  unusual.  Quintilian  tried  to  stay  this  tide,  and 
taught  that  oratory  should  conceal  itself.  He  met,  how- 
ever, with  poor  success  in  reforming  the  evil. 

Quintilian's  Pedagogy. — His  pedagogical  teachings,  some 
of  which  we  present,  are  of  the  greatest  importance. 

1.  There  should  be  no  corporal  punishment,  as  punish- 
ment administered  to  slaves  is  not  suitable  for  children 
who  are  to  be  citizens. 

2.  Nurses  must  be  irreproachable  in  life  and  language, 
so  that  children  be  not  brought  in  contact  with  anything 
impure. 

3.  Amusements  should  be  turned  to  account  as  a  means 
of  education. 

4.  Teachers  should  be  men  of  ability  and  of  spotless 
character. 

1  Institutio  Oratoria. 


92  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

5.  Children  should  begin  early  with  a  foreign  tongue, 
as  their  own  language  will  come  to  them  naturally  in  their 
intercourse  with  those  about  them. 

6.  Education  should  begin  with  the  earliest  childhood. 

7.  The  forms  and  names  of  the  letters  should  be  learned 
simultaneously,  playthings  being  utilized  to  assist  in  this. 

8.  Care  should  be  taken  that  children  do  not  acquire  a 
distaste  for  learning. 

9.  In  learning  to  read,  advance  very  slowly. 

10.  Writing  should  begin  with  tracing,  and  the  copies 
should  consist  of  moral  precepts. 

n.    The  individuality  of  the  child  should  be  studied. 

12.  Public  schools  are  preferable  to  other  means  of  edu- 
cation, because  they  do  not  subject  the  child  to  greater 
moral  danger,  while   they  stimulate  him  by  association, 
friendship,  and  example,  to  nobler  endeavor. 

13.  Under  the  literatus,  grammar,  composition,  music, 
geometry,  astronomy,  and  literature  are  to  be  studied. 

14.  The  climax  of  education  should  be  rhetoric. 

Other  Roman  Educators.  —  Among  the  other  Roman 
educators  may  be  mentioned  Plutarch  (50-138  A.D.)  and 
the  Emperor  Marcus  Aurelius.  Plutarch  in  his  "  Parallel 
Lives "  gives  particular  attention  to  morals.  He  offers 
valuable  suggestions  as  to  the  training  of  children,  laying 
great  stress  upon  family  life,  an  admonition  particularly 
needed  in  Rome  at  that  period.  He  also  urges  that 
women  should  be  educated  in  order  properly  to  train  their 
children,  being  one  of  the  first  to  consider  this  question. 

Martus  Aurelius,  called  "  the  philosopher  on  the  throne," 
in  his  "  Meditations  "  gave  expression  to  most  lofty  thoughts, 
showing  keenest  self-examination  and  obedience  to  con- 
science. His  moral  teachings  are  among  the  noblest  of 
all  the  writers  of  antiquity. 


CHAPTER   XIII 

CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION 

Literature.  —  Bryce,  Holy  Roman  Empire  ;  Guizot,  History  of  Civili- 
zation ;  Lord,  Beacon  Lights  ;  Sheppard,  Fall  of  Rome  ;  Draper,  Con- 
flict between  Religion  and  Science ;  Clarke,  Ten  Great  Religions ; 
Gibbon,  Decline  and  Fall  of  Roman  Empire ;  Laurie,  Rise  of  Universi- 
ties ;  Stille,  Studies  in  Mediaeval  History ;  Arnold,  Essays  in  Criticism  ; 
Lecky,  History  of  European  Morals ;  Hegel,  Philosophy  of  History  ; 
Allies,  The  Formation  of  Christendom ;  Chdteaubriand,  The  Genius  of 
Christianity ;  Azarias,  Essays  Philosophical. 


INTRODUCTION 

ORIENTAL  civilization  was  based  on  the  theory  that  the 
individual  belonged  to  the  State,  and  could  have  no  interest 
except  that  which  was  bound  up  in  the  interests  of  the 
State.  Christianity,  on  the  other  hand,  taught  that  while 
the  individual  has  duties  which  he  owes  to  the  State,  and 
while  he  must  look  to  the  State  for  his  protection,  and  for 
the  preservation  of  his  material  interests,  he  owes  a  Higher 
allegiance  elsewhere,  and  no  fetters  can  be  placed  on  the 
aspirations  or  wants  of  his  own  soul.  In  a  word,  Christi- 
anity taught  the  importance  and  worth  of  the  individual. 

The  great  teachers,  Confucius,  Buddha,  Socrates,  Plato, 
had  many  glimpses  of  truth,  but  Christ  is  truth  itself.  He 
discovered  to  the  world  the  final  principle  of  the  value  of 
the  human  soul,  and  brought  to  fruition  the  truth  that  "  all 
men  are  equal  before  God."  This  thought  made  human 
development  possible ;  a  new  principle  was  introduced 

93 


94  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION' 

upon  which  civilization  could  build  and  advance,  and  im- 
prove to  the  end  of  time.  Perhaps  the  highest  test  of 
civilization  is  found  in  the  respect  shown  to  women. 
Measured  by  this  test,  the  oriental  nations  have  made  but 
little  progress,  as  the  position  of  woman  with  them  is  much 
the  same  to-day  as  it  was  centuries  ago.  While  this  is 
true  of  each  individual  nation,  we  have  found  among  the 
nations  themselves,  as  we  have  traced  the  growth  of  civili- 
zation, steady  improvement  in  the  condition  of  woman. 
Thus,  in  Athens  and  Rome,  where  we  find  the  highest 
types  of  ancient  civilization,  there  was  also  the  greatest 
respect  for  woman.  In  no  country  of  the  East  was  it 
equaled.  If  the  Jews  are  mentioned  as  an  exception,  it 
must  be  admitted  that  the  Jewish  women  held  the  highest 
place  among  those  of  antiquity ;  but  this  eminence  was 
given  by  the  Jews  only  to  the  women  of  their  own  race, 
and  was  by  no  means  universally  accorded  to  womankind, 
as  it  is  by  the  spirit  of  Christianity.  If  we  discover  a 
greater  respect  for  woman  in  Rome  or  Athens  than  in 
China  or  India,  it  only  shows  the  movement  of  civilization 
toward  the  west. 

The  coming  of  Christ  marked  a  new  era  both  in  religion 
and  education.  Let  us  look  at  some  of  the  lessons  which 
Christianity  teaches. 

1.  God  is  the  common  Father  of  all  men. — This  does 
not  limit  the  blessings  of  the  world  to  the  Jew  and  ex- 
clude the  Gentile.     All  men    of  whatever  race   or  color 
may  approach  God  as  their  Father,  and  all  are  equal  in 
his  sight.     This  gives  hope  to  all,  and  makes  possible  an 
exercise  of  faith  in  the  present  and  in  the  future    life. 
It  proclaims  a  higher  citizenship  than  that  of  the  State, 
and  demands  allegiance  first  of  all  to  God. 

2.  The  universal  brotherhood  of  man.  —  This  principle 


CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  95 

sweeps  away  castes,  abolishes  slavery,  destroys  class  dis- 
tinctions, and  gives  equal  rights  to  all  men.  It  stimulates 
love  for  fellow-men,  checks  selfishness,  promulgates  peace 
and  good  will,  and  implants  the  spirit  of  the  Golden  Rule 
in  the  hearts  of  men. 

3.  Marriage  is  a  divine  rite  and  husband  and  wife  are 
equal.  —  Nothing  like  this  teaching  had  been  practiced  in 
the  pagan  world.    Woman  was  simply  the  servant,  the  crea- 
ture, of  man.     She  was  to    do    his    bidding,  and    might 
be   divorced   for   trivial   cause,    or   for   none.     Man    was 
supreme  and  his  will  was  law.     The  home  in  the  Christian 
sense  did  not  exist,  because  the  husband  and  wife  were 
not  one. 

4.  Children  are  the  gift  of  God.  —  This  was  a  Jewish  as 
well  as  a  Christian  teaching.     If  children  are  the  gift  of 
God,  the  power  of  life  and  death  over  them  cannot  rest 
with  the  father,  as  in  China,  Persia,  or  Rome.     It  is  the 
duty  of  the  father   to  preserve  them,  teach  them,  train 
them  for  this  life,  and  prepare  them  for  the  life  to  come. 
Since  the  children  come  from  God,  the  pious  parent  must 
consider  them  as  a  sacred  trust  which  he  does  not  neglect. 
Hence  he  must  see  to  it  that  they  are  properly  educated. 

5.  The  central  pedagogic  truth   of  CJirisfs  teaching  is 
this:   All  education  is  for  the  individual.     Oriental  edu- 
cation had  for  its  end  the  interests  of  the  State.     Christian 
education  has  for  its  end  the  interests  of  the  individual. 
The  State  is  the  creature  of  man,  and  not  man  the  creature 
of  the  State.     Man  will  create,  and  support,  and  preserve 
the  State  for  his  self-protection  and  for  his  own   good. 
The  highest  ideal  of  the  State  is  that  in  which  the  people 
rule,  that  which  furnishes  the  greatest  liberty.     This  is 
the  logic  of   Christianity,   and   the  logical  conclusion  of 
education.     It   is   really   for   the   individual.     The   world 


96  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

has  been  slow  to  learn  this  lesson  taught  by  Christ ;  but 
now  it  is  mastering  it  more  thoroughly  every  day,  as  shown 
by  the  more  liberal  forms  of  government,  the  broader  in- 
terpretation of  courses  of  study,  and  the  greater  attention 
to  the  needs  of  the  individual  child. 

All  these  teachings  of  Christianity  have  a  direct  educa- 
tional meaning,  and  suggest  lessons  for  all  humanity.  For 
the  school  is  not  the  only  contributor  to  the  education  of  a 
people.  Every  truth  that  affects  mankind,  every  principle 
that  touches  the  home  or  the  State,  has  its  influence  upon 
the  life  and  character  of  the  individual,  and  is,  therefore, 
an  element  in  his  education. 

The  natural  consequence  of  these  principles  is  that  edu- 
cation must  be  universal.  Every  child  must  be  fitted  for 
the  duties  of  life,  both  for  his  own  sake  and  for  the  sake 
of  the  State  of  which  he  is  a  part.  As  an  individual,  he 
must  work  out  his  destiny,  and  to  make  this  possible  in  the 
broadest  and  best  sense  from  the  Christian  standpoint  both 
mind  and  heart  must  be  developed.  As  a  member  of  the 
State  he  must  assume  duties  in  public  affairs  which  require 
the  possession  of  superior  intelligence.  This  is  particularly 
true  in  free  governments  which  are  the  logical  product  of 
the  spirit  of  Christianity.  While  the  idea  of  universal 
education  had  its  beginning  with  the  Christian  era,  we 
shall  see  that  many  centuries  elapsed  before  it  reached  its 
fulfillment.  There  were  many  serious  and  almost  insur- 
mountable obstacles  against  which  the  early  Christians 
had  to  contend,  and  these  made  progress  necessarily  slow. 
Let  us  look  at  some  of  these  obstacles. 

Their  Poverty.  —  The  early  Christians  were  almost  with- 
out exception  poor.  Christ  appealed  to  the  poor  and 
lowly,  and  chose  his  disciples  from  among  them.  The 
acknowledged  followers  of  the  Nazarene  had  to  face 


CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  97 

confiscation  of  property,  persecution,  death.  Homeless 
and  without  protection  they  wandered  about,  and  had 
neither  the  opportunity  nor  the  right  to  acquire  property. 
They,  therefore,  had  little  means  to  apply  to  the  education 
of  their  children.  They  could  neither  establish  schools  nor 
employ  teachers ;  they  could  give  only  such  instruction  as 
the  limitations  of  their  poverty,  their  misery,  and  their  fear 
permitted.  Consequently,  only  the  most  meager  training 
could  be  secured,  and  that  almost  wholly  in  religious 
matters. 

Their  Own  Ignorance.  —  Chosen  as  they  were  from  the 
lowly  ranks  of  life,  many  of  the  early  Christians  were 
ignorant.  Most  of  them  were  servants  and  slaves,  who 
had  been  converted  from  paganism,  and  who  did  not 
possess  even  the  rudiments  of  education.  They  had  to  be 
instructed  in  the  rites  and  ceremonies  of  the  Church,  and 
in  the  practices  and  requirements  of  their  new  belief. 
Unlettered  as  they  were  themselves,  they  could  scarcely 
undertake  to  educate  their  children.  It  is  marvelous  that 
under  these  conditions  any  attempt  was  made  to  do  it; 
yet  we  find  that  great  pains  were  taken  even  in  the  early 
centuries  of  the  Christian  era  to  perform  this  duty  toward 
those  who  were  regarded  as  gifts  of  God  and  heirs  of 
salvation. 

Their  Small  Number.  —  Even  when  free  from  perse- 
cution and  under  comparatively  happy  conditions,  they 
were  so  scattered  and  so  few  in  number,  as  well  as 
so  poor,  that  to  maintain  schools  was  almost  an  impossi- 
bility. They  would  not  permit  their  children  to  attend  the 
pagan  schools,  as  they  feared  moral  and  intellectual  con- 
tamination. The  only  safety,  especially  for  the  converts 
from  paganism,  was  in  being  "  separate  from  the  world " 
about  them.  So  where  their  numbers  were  sufficient  they 

HIST.    OF   ED.  —  7 


98  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

established  schools  of  their  own.  But  in  many  communi- 
ties they  could  not  do  this ;  hence  they  could  only  teach 
their  children  at  home. 

Opposition  of  the  Rulers.  —  Rome  ruled  the  world,  and 
her  highways,  her  commerce,  her  military  expeditions, 
and  her  mighty  enterprises  furnished  excellent  means  for 
the  spread  of  Christianity.  But  while  Rome  had  many 
religions,  adopted  from  her  conquered  peoples,  Chris- 
tianity was  so  different  from  these  that  the  rulers  were 
readily  brought  to  regard  the  Christians  with  suspicion. 
Humility,  returning  good  for  evil,  refusal  to  avenge,  were 
contrary  to  the  Roman  spirit.  Therefore  many  persecu- 
tions followed,  which  disturbed  the  life  of  the  Christians  so 
as  to  make  impossible  the  work  of  educating  their  children. 

Lack  of  Christian  Literature.  —  The  early  Christian 
Fathers  fully  realized  the  dangers  that  surrounded  their  chil- 
dren. To  come  in  contact  with  pagan  schools,  or  even  with 
pagan  literature,  they  felt  to  be  dangerous.  How  easy 
it  would  be  for  pagan  converts  to  fall  away,  or  even  for 
others  not  pagan,  attracted  by  popular  influences.  For 
Christianity  was  not  yet  popular.  Hence  the  only  safety 
of  the  converts  lay  in  totally  abstaining  from  the  use  of 
pagan  literature.  Here  was  introduced  a  discussion  that 
affected  the  Church  and  educational  progress  for  centu- 
ries, and  caused  learned  men  when  converted  to  abjure  their 
favorite  authors  who  had  furnished  the  material  for  their 
education  in  their  early  years.  Having  no  literature  of 
their  own,  and  condemning  the  use  of  pagan  literature,  the 
Christians  found  it  hard  to  overcome  the  obstacles  which 
stood  in  the  way  of  Christian  education.  As  a  result, 
almost  the  only  things  taught  to  children  were  certain  parts 
of  the  Bible,  and  the  rites  and  duties  of  the  Church. 

Other  Difficulties.  —  New  ideas  do  not  readily  take  hold 


CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION-  99 

of  the  world.  Men  naturally  cling  to  the  old  and  tried, 
and  are  not  easily  turned  to  new  thoughts  and  practices. 
The  teachings  of  Christ  were  so  radically  new  that  men 
were  slow  to  adopt  them.  Their  acceptance  involved  a 
change  of  habit,  the  abandonment  of  customs  not  before 
regarded  as  evil,  the  yielding  up  of  social  caste,  the  hum- 
bling of  the  individual.  Herein  existed  a  most  serious  ob- 
stacle to  the  establishment  of  Christian  education. 

These  are  a  few  of  the  great  difficulties  that  had  to  be 
met,  many  of  which  were  not  overcome  for  centuries.  We 
shall  see,  as  we  trace  the  development  of  education,  how 
the  new  ideas  which  had  their  birth  with  the  Christian  era 
struggled  for  recognition,  how  they  have  become  estab- 
lished, how  they  have  brought  great  blessings  to  mankind, 
how  they  have  aroused  ambition  and  awakened  hope,  and 
how  they  give  promise  of  still  greater  advancement  in 
times  to  come.  The  boundless  field  thus  opened  to  man- 
kind, and  the  knowledge  of  how  to  enter  and  possess  it, 
constitute  the  world's  great  inheritance  from  Christ  But 
to  know  how  to  appreciate  and  use  this  inheritance,  we 
must  study  the  slow  and  painful  growth  of  these  new 
educational  ideals  from  the  Christian  era  till  the  present 
time. 


CHAPTER   XIV 

THE   GREAT   TEACHER 

Literature.  —  The  Bible ;  Beecher,  Life  of  Christ ;  Hanna,  Our  Lord's 
Life  on  Earth ;  Geikie,  Life  of  Christ ;  Azarias,  Philosophy  of  Litera- 
ture ;  Fouard,  Life  of  Christ. 


Life  and  Character.  —  Christ  was  born  in  Bethlehem, 
spent  his  early  life  at  Nazareth,  entered  upon  his  ministry 
when  thirty  years  of  age,  continued  it  for  three  years,  and 
was  then  crucified  by  the  Romans  at  the  instigation  of  the 
Jews.  These  are  simple  facts  of  history  corroborated  by 
both  sacred  and  profane  writings.  All  agree  that  his  was 
the  most  noble  character  that  ever  appeared  on  earth. 
The  most  careful  study  of  his  life  for  nineteen  centuries, 
by  friends  and  enemies,  by  scholars  and  critics,  by  philoso- 
phers and  statesmen,  by  Christians  and  unbelievers,  only 
adds  to  its  luster,  and  sustains  the  conviction  that,  though 
he  was  a  man,  he  was  also  more  than  man.  The  most 
critical  research,  the  most  careful  examination  of  his  life, 
his  motives,  his  teachings,  only  compel  the  testimony 
that  he  was  "  without  spot  or  blemish."  The  great  have 
studied  his  sayings  and  his  life,  and  have  bowed  in 
admiration  before  the  sublime  teachings  of  the  Son  of  Man. 
The  simple  and  unlettered  have  listened  to  his  words 
of  truth  and  been  comforted.  Faith  has  been  awakened, 
hope  inspired,  love  quickened,  and  man  redeemed  by  the 
power  of  the  Christ.  Millions  have  been  influenced  by  the 
sweetness  and  purity  of  his  life.  The  spirit  of  Christianity 
has  led  to  the  founding  of  hospitals,  asylums,  and  institu- 


THE  GREAT  TEACHER  IOI 

tions  of  mercy  everywhere  ;  to  the  establishment  of  schools 
and  colleges ;  to  the  universal  spread  of  education  ;  to  the 
uplifting  of  the  individual ;  to  the  furtherance  of  human 
brotherhood ;  and  to  the  fostering  of  peace  among  men 
and  nations. 

Christ  produced  a  profound  impression  alike  upon  the 
great  and  the  small.  Rousseau  says  of  him,  "  The  life 
and  death  of  Jesus  Christ  are  those  of  a  god."  Napoleon 
says  of  Christ,  "  His  birth  and  the  story  of  his  life  ;  the 
profoundness  of  his  doctrine,  which  overturns  all  difficul- 
ties, and  is  their  most  complete  solution  ;  his  gospel ;  the 
singularity  of  his  mysterious  being ;  his  appearance,  his 
empire,  his  progress  through  all  centuries  and  kingdoms,  — 
all  this  is  to  me  a  prodigy,  an  unfathomable  mystery.  I 
defy  you  to  cite  another  life  like  that  of  Christ."  It  has  well 
been  said  that  "  Christ  is  the  God  who  is  man,  and  the  man 
who  is  God." 

Nor  was  the  impression  upon  the  lowly  less  profound. 
He  called  ignorant  fishermen  to  discipleship,  and  by  three 
years'  contact  and  instruction  prepared  them  to  "go  into 
the  world  and  teach  all  nations."  The  inspiration  of  his 
life  and  teachings  made  them  able  to  stand  before  kings, 
and  to  "  confound  the  wisdom  of  the  wise." 

His  Work  as  a  Teacher.  —  But  the  question  here  is  not 
concerning  Christ  as  the  founder  of  a  .religion,  nor  of  his 
divine  character  or  life,  but  of  Christ  as  a  teacher.  He  is 
justly  entitled  to  be  called  "The  Great  Teacher."  Karl 
Schmidt  says,  "  By  his  doctrines  and  through  his  deeds, 
—  in  and  with  his  entire  life,  —  is  Christ  the  teacher  and 
educator  of  humanity."  His  method  is  the  foundation  of 
all  true  teaching.  Let  us  note  some  of  the  important 
characteristics  of  this  method. 

I.    It  was  suited  to  his  hearers.  —  When  Christ  taught 


102  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

the  people  he  used  material  that  they  could  comprehend. 
Thus,  when  he  spoke  his  parable  of  the  sower,  while  he 
sat  by  the  seaside,  the  multitude  before  him  had  gathered 
from  the  villages  and  farms  of  the  country  round  about. 
They  therefore  could  thoroughly  appreciate  the  lesson. 
His  parable  of  the  vineyard  was  doubtless  suggested  by 
the  vine-clad  hills  of  Judea,  and  the  lessons  taught  were 
made  more  forcible  by  their  suitableness.  In  his  conver- 
sation with  the  learned  Nicodemus  he  plunged  at  once  into 
the  most  profound  doctrines,  but  when  he  talked  with  the 
ignorant  Samaritan  woman,  his  approach  to  the  truth  he 
would  teach  was  most  simple  and  gradual.  No  one  ever 
failed  to  understand  him,  and  he  is  a  most  remarkable 
example  of  the  teacher  suiting  himself  to  the  capacity  of 
his  pupils. 

2.  It  was  full  of  illustrations.  —  When  he  wished  to 
teach  the  evil  of  covetousness  he  told  of  the  rich  man  and 
his  barns  ;  he  encouraged  faithfulness  by  the  parable  of  the 
talents  ;  he  stimulated  to  fruit  bearing  by  the  story  of  the 
fig  tree  ;    he  taught  mercy  by  the  account   of  the  Good 
Samaritan  ;   joy  over  repentance  was  illustrated   by   the 
story  of  the   ninety  and  nine.     And  so  we  find  that  by 
ample  and  suitable  illustration   the  Savior  enforced  the 
sublime  truths  that  he  taught. 

3.  It  was  simple  and  yet  logical.  —  There  was  no  effort 
to  be  philosophical,  yet  the  teachings  of  Christ  are  full 
of  philosophy.      The  language  used  and  the  manner  of 
putting  the  truth  were  so  simple  that  the  ignorant  man 
and  the  child  were  never  left  in  doubt  as  to  his  meaning. 
Nevertheless    his   teaching   was    not    haphazard ;    it  was 
connected  and  logical.     It  contained  so  much  of  truth,  so 
systematically  put  and  so  much  to  the  point  in  view,  that, 
while   it  appealed   at   once   to  the  understanding  of  his 


THE   GREAT  TEACH 'ER  103 

hearers,  it  also  furnished  material  for  thought  for  the  most 
learned  of  all  ages.  Whether  it  was  a  parable  or  a  story, 
an  admonition  or  a  rebuke,  a  sermon  or  a  prayer,  a  word 
of  comfort  to  the  sisters  of  Bethany  or  an  argument  with 
the  chief  priests,  a  familiar  conversation  with  his  disciples 
or  a  stern  rebuke  of  the  scribes  and  Pharisees,  —  Christ 
always  expressed  himself  with  simplicity  and  clearness. 

4.  It  drew  front  Nature.  —  Christ  loved  to  walk  in  the 
fields  with  his  disciples  and  draw  lessons  from  the  plants, 
the  birds,  the  sowing  of  the  farmer,  the  gathering  of  fruit 
from  the  vineyard,  the  ripening  harvests,  and  the  whisper- 
ing breezes.     "  Consider  the  lilies  of  the  field  how  they 
grow;  "   "behold  the  fowls  of  the  air;"  "a  sower  went 
forth  to  sow  ; "  "a  certain  man  had  a  fig  tree  planted  in 
his  vineyard  ;  and  he  came  and  sought  fruit  thereon  and 
found  none  ;  "  "  lift  up  your  eyes  and  look  on  the  fields ; 
for  they  are  white  already  to  harvest ;  "  "  the  wind  bloweth 
where  it  listeth,"  —  these  and  many  other  texts  show  that 
Christ  was  familiar  with  Nature,  and  loved  to  call  upon  her 
for  illustration  and  example. 

5.  It  elevated  t/te  truth  and  sought  to  enforce  it.  —  Christ 
gave  himself  a  sacrifice  for  the  truth.      He  allowed  no 
thought  of  personal  safety  or  success  to  overshadow  the 
truth.     All    his   words,  his  acts,  his  teachings,  aimed   at 
establishing  the  truth.       He    overthrew  old  systems  and* 
introduced   a   new  spirit  into  the  world,   even   the  spirit 
of  truth.     He  was  the  very  essence  of   truth,  declaring 
to  Thomas,  "  I  am  the  way,  the  truth,  and  the  life."     He 
thus  gave  to  teachers  for  all  time  a  noble  example  and 
an  immortal  principle,  vital  to  their  success  in  true  teach- 
ing.    It  is  the  truth  that  must  be  taught  and  practiced  by 
every  one  worthy  of  the  name  of  teacher. 

6.  It  was  earnest  and  full  of  sympathy.  —  The  earnest- 


104  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

ness  of  Christ  aroused  the  populace  to  shout  "  Hosanna  !  " 
and  provoked  the  bitter  hostility  of  his  enemies.  It  drew 
multitudes  into  the  wilderness  and  attracted  crowds  wher- 
ever he  went.  His  sympathy  went  out  to  the  people 
as  "  sheep  having  no  shepherd."  It  led  him  to  feed 
the  multitude,  heal  the  sick,  raise  the  dead,  take  little 
children  in  his  arms  and  bless  them,  and  weep  over 
Jerusalem.  He  came  close  to  the  lives  and  hearts  of 
those  whom  he  instructed.  This  is  one  of  the  grandest 
lessons  that  the  Great  Teacher  left  for  teachers  of  all 
time. 

These  are  some  of  the  chief  characteristics  of  Christ's 
spirit  and  method.  He  loved  little  children,  and  taught 
his  disciples,  when  he  had  set  a  little  child  in  the  midst  of 
them,  "  Whosoever,  therefore,  shall  humble  himself  as  this 
little  child,  the  same  is  greatest  in  the  kingdom  of  heaven." 
Every  one  of  the  principles  above  stated  is  essential  to  the 
teacher,  and  these  principles  contain  the  sum  and  sub- 
stance of  all  true  pedagogy.  Well  has  Karl  Schmidt  ex- 
pressed the  truth,  when  he  says,  "  Christ,  the  perfect 
teacher,  gave  by  his  example  and  by  his  own  teaching  the 
eternal  principles  of  pedagogy." 


CHAPTER   XV 

GENERAL  VIEW  OF  THE  FIRST  PERIOD  OF  CHRISTIAN 
EDUCATION 

Literature.  —  Allies,  Peter's  Rock  in  Mohammed's  Flood  ;  Newman, 
Historical  Essays. 

THIS  period  covered  the  time  from  the  birth  of  Christ 
till  the  Reformation.  It  included  the  early  centuries  of 
struggling  Christianity,  in  which  old  customs  had  to  be 
combated,  and  the  new  ideas,  born  with  the  coming  of  the 
Savior,  and  propagated  by  him  and  his  followers,  were 
slowly  and  surely  to  take  possession  of  the  world.  These 
fifteen  centuries  embrace  those  generally  known  in  history 
as  the  "  Dark  Ages,"  during  which  progress  was  in- 
deed slow.  But  when  we  remember  the  obstacles  which, 
as  we  have  seen,  were  to  be  met,  the  prejudice  to  be 
set  aside,  the  great  changes  inaugurated,  and  the  limited 
means  at  command,  we  marvel  at  the  great  results  at- 
tained. Let  us  now  briefly  examine  some  of  the  factors 
that  are  prominent  in  Christian  education  during  its 
first  period. 

i.  The  apostles  and  ChurcJi  Fathers  were  foremost  in 
all  educational  matters.  —  These  men  were  not  simply 
spiritual  leaders;  they  caught  the  spirit  of  the  Master, 
and  sought  to  instruct  the  head  as  well  as  the  heart. 
They  established  schools  and  themselves  became  teachers, 
directed  educational  movements,  formed  courses  of  study, 
and  by  fostering  education  furthered  the  success  and 
perpetuity  of  Christianity.  Men  like  Paul,  Origen, 
Chrysostom,  Basil  the  Great,  and  Augustine  did  much 


106  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

good,  not  only  in  building  up  the  Church,  but  also  -in 
promoting  education,  the  chief  handmaid  of  the  Church. 
Indeed,  all  educational  progress  during  the  early  Chris- 
tian centuries  centers  around  the  names  of  these  men. 

2.  The  Church  was  the  sponsor  of  the  schools.  —  During 
this  long  period  the  State  had  not  yet  assumed  the  obliga- 
tion of  educating  her  youth,  and  we  find  only  rare  instances 
of  the  State  taking  any  part  in  the  training  of  the  young. 
No  attempt  at  universal  education  was   made,  and  none 
could  be  made,  for   the    Church    could   not    furnish   the 
means    to    do    it;    consequently   nearly    all    educational 
effort  was  directed  to  training    the   priesthood  and  pro- 
viding for  the  perpetuity  of  the  Church.      The   Church 
was, the   mother   of   the    schools,    and   to    her   fostering 
care   alone   do   we   owe    their   establishment    and   main- 
tenance  during   this   long    period.      Her    authority   was 
supreme,    and   acknowledged    by   all    temporal    powers; 
hence  the  subjects  studied  in  the  schools   and   the  per- 
sons  chosen   to    share    the    benefits    of    education    were 
such  as  would  subserve  the  interests  of  the  Church. 

3.  The  monasteries  rendered  valuable  service  to  educa- 
tion. —  They  were  long  the  centers  of  learning,  being  the 
only  places   where    schools   existed.     They  were   the  re- 
positories  of   valuable    manuscripts,    which   were   copied 
with    marvelous     diligence     and     preserved    for    future 
generations.     The  monasteries  adopted  courses  of  study 
which,   however  incomplete,  were  efficiently  carried  out, 
and   formed  the   basis  of  future  courses.    The  influence 
of    the   monasteries   for    many   centuries    was   of    great 
value  to  learning. 

4.  The    crusades    brought    new   life   into   education.  — 
While    the    crusades     were     primarily     religious     move- 
ments, they  were  also  educational  in  their  results.    They 


FIRST  PERIOD   OF  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION     107 

infused  new  life  into  the  stagnant  conditions  of  Europe. 
They  aroused  the  people  to  physical  and  mental,  as  well 
as  religious,  activity.  They  led  to  the  establishment  of 
schools  and  universities. 

5.  The  Teutonic  peoples  became  an  important  instrument 
of  progress.  —  Rome  began  to  decline,  and  the  Teutons  of 
the  north,  whom  Rome  had  never  been  able  to  subjugate, 
became  her  conquerors.  The  Latin  race  had  served  a 
noble  purpose  in  the  world's  history,  but  now  another, 
perhaps  stronger  race,  joined  in  the  work  of  civilization. 
The  physical  and  intellectual  vigor  of  the  various  branches 
of  the  Teutonic  family,  —  the  German,  the  Anglo-Saxon, 
the  Scandinavian,  —  which  has  won  for  them  leadership  in 
evangelization,  in  commerce,  in  conquest,  and  in  educa- 
tional enterprise,  showed  itself  unmistakably  during  the 
period  under  discussion.  These  peoples  now  joined  with 
the  Latin  peoples  in  assuming  the  ever  increasing  responsi- 
bilities of  Christian  civilization,  and  the  interests  of  educa- 
tion were  greatly  enhanced  and  furthered  through  these 
combined  influences. 

These  are  the  principal  agencies  to  which  were  committed 
the  most  vital  interests  of  humanity  during  the  first  fifteen 
centuries  of  the  Christian  era.  We  shall  see  that  some  grave 
errors  were  made,  errors  that  blocked  the  path  of  improve- 
ment sometimes  for  centuries ;  we  shall  find  that  narrow- 
ness, bigotry,  prejudice,  and  ignorance  often  hindered  the 
introduction  of  truth  because  it  did  not  coincide  with  tradi- 
tion ;  we  shall  see  how  the  Church  assumed  prerogatives 
that  did  not  belong  to  her,  especially  in  the  field  of  scientific 
research,  and  thereby  delayed  human  progress ;  neverthe- 
less, we  shall  ever  remain  thankful  to  these  agencies  for 
the  encouragement  they  gave  to  education,  and  for  what- 
ever good  results  they  were  instrumental  in  attaining. 


CHAPTER   XVI 

THE  FIRST  CHRISTIAN   SCHOOLS 

Literature.  —  White,  Eighteen  Christian  Centuries ;  Durrell,  A  New 
Life  in  Education ;  Laurie,  Rise  of  Universities ;  Lecky,  History  of 
European  Morals ;  Allies,  The  Formation  of  Christendom ;  Azarias, 
Philosophy  of  Literature ;  Azarias,  Essays  Philosophical. 


WE  have  already  seen  that  the  early  Christians  were 
obliged  to  endure  great  hardships  and  surmount  great  dif- 
ficulties in  securing  education  for  their  children.  Indeed, 
during  the  first  two  centuries  almost  all  that  was  done  was 
to  train  the  converts  in  the  rites  and  ceremonies  of  the 
Ch'ristian  Church.  But  as  they  grew  stronger  in  numbers, 
and  as  persecution  diminished,  they  could  give  greater  at- 
tention to  education.  Unwilling  to  make  use  of  pagan 
schools,  which  could  not  satisfy  their  chief  need — to  pre- 
pare for  the  new  religion  —  they  gradually  established  their 
own. 

Catechumen  Schools.  —  The  first  Christian  schools  were 
catechumen  schools.  A  catechumen  was  a  person  who  de- 
sired instruction  in  the  new  faith  with  a  view  to  baptism 
and  admission  into  the  Church.  As  many  of  the  converts 
had  been  pagans,  and  as  all  were  ignorant  of  the  require- 
ments of  the  Church  as  well  as  of  the  new  doctrines,  such 
instruction  was  absolutely  necessary.  Therefore  the  con- 
verts were  divided  into  classes,  at  first  two,  later,  four ;  and 
instruction  was  given  them  in  the  rudiments  of  Christianity. 
In  the  beginning  the  catechumen  schools  were  for  adults 

108 


THE  FIRST  CHRISTIAN  SCHOOLS  109 

only,  but  afterward  children  were  admitted,  and  reading 
and  writing  were  taught.  Previous  to  this  change,  if  chil- 
dren received  any  secular  instruction  at  all,  it  was  given 
at  their  homes  by  parents  or  tutors,  or  in  the  pagan 
schools.  At  the  close  of  the  second  century  Protogenes 
established  a  school  at  Odessa,  in  which  reading,  writing, 
texts  of  Scripture,  and  singing  of  psalms  were  taught. 
This  was  the  first  Christian  common  school.  Other  schools 
followed  rapidly  as  the  persecutions  ceased,  until  Rome 
became  Christianized,  and  pagan  schools  gave  place  to 
Christian  schools  throughout  the  empire.  Two  great 
names  are  closely  connected  with  this  movement. 

CHRYSOSTOM  (347-407) 

One  of  the  greatest  representatives  of  the  early  Christian 
Church  interested  in  education  was  Chrysostom.1  He  was 
born  at  Antioch  in  Syria,  and  educated  in  the  pagan 
schools,  but  the  influence  of  his  devout  Christian  mother 
kept  him  true  to  her  faith.  He  was  noted  for  his  elo- 
quence, hence  the  name  by  which  he  is  known  in  history, 
for  Chrysostom  means  golden-mouthed.  John  M alone  says 
of  him,  "  First  of  the  great  Christian  preachers  after  the 
Church  came  from  the  caves,  he  was  not  less  able  as  a 
teacher."  2  He  became  bishop  of  the  Church,  and  was  the 
greatest  pedagogue  of  his  time.  Some  of  his  educational 
principles  may  be  stated  as  follows  :  — 

1.  As  Christ  lowered  himself  to  man's  estate  in  order 
to  raise  man  to  his  estate,  so  the  teacher  must  lower  "him- 
self to  the  capacity  of  his  pupils  in  order  to  elevate  them. 

2.  Christ   did  not  reveal    everything  to    his    disciples, 

1  Warner's  "  Library  of  the  World's  Best  Literature,"  Vol.  VI,  3665.     Lord, 
"  Beacon  Lights,"  Vol.  I,  Lecture  on  Sacred  Eloquence. 

2  Warner's  Library,  Vol.  VI,  3666. 


1 10  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION1 

suggesting  sometimes  truths  for  them  to  discover ;  so  the 
teacher  must  not  do  for  his  pupils  what  they  can  do  for 
themselves. 

3.  The  foundation  of  all  true  education  is  the  Christian 
life  and  example ;   therefore  teachers  and  parents  must 
walk  circumspectly  before  children. 

4.  Women,  especially  mothers,  are  the  natural  educators 
of  children. 

5.  Religious   instruction  is  an  essential   factor  of   the 
school  work.     It  is  of   the  highest  importance  that  chil- 
dren should  be  brought  up  "  in  the  nurture  and  admonition 
of  the  Lord." 

BASIL  THE  GREAT   (329-379) 

Basil  the  Great  was  born  at  Caesarea.  He  studied  at 
Constantinople  and  Athens,  and  sat  at  the  feet  of  the 
greatest  pagan  philosophers  and  teachers  of  his  time.  He 
was  not  perverted  by  their  teachings,  but  told  them  frankly 
that,  though  they  possessed  all  learning,  he  had  found 
something  greater  than  this,  and  that  was  the  Christ. 
Basil  was  one  of  the  foremost  Fathers  of  the  Church,  a 
great  writer,  and  a  promoter  of  education.  He  was  very 
fond  of  classic  literature,  and,  in  face  of  the  bitter 
opposition  of  many  of  the  Church  Fathers,  urged  its 
proper  use  in  the  schools.  He  was  instrumental  in  found- 
ing monasteries,  hospitals,  orphanages,  and  refuges  for 
the  poor. 

Pedagogical  Teachings.  —  i.  Every  misdeed  should  be 
punished  in  such  a  way  that  the  punishment  shall  be  an 
exercise  in  self-command  and  shall  tend  to  correct  the  fault. 
For  example,  if  a  child  has  lied,  used  profane  language,  or 
been  quarrelsome,  give  him  solitude  and  fasting.  If  he 


THE  FIRST  CHRISTIAN  SCHOOLS  1 1 1 

is  greedy  and  gluttonous,  let  him  stand  by  and  see  others 
eat  while  he  remains  hungry. 

2.  Orphan  children  and  those  that  are  dependent  should 
be  taught  in  the  cloister. 

3.  The   Bible,  with  its  stories,  promises,  history,  and 
doctrines,  should  be  the  chief  text-book. 

4.  Not  only  monks  and  priests  should  be  allowed  to 
teach,  but  also  the  laity. 

5.  Children  while  still   young   and   innocent   must  be 
taught  good  habits  and  right  precepts. 

It  is  worthy  of  note  that  Chrysostom  and  Basil  were  the 
first  to  mark  out  definite  lines  of  Christian  instruction. 
During  this  period,  also,  the  first  songs  of  the  Christian 
Church  originated  in  the  huts  and  caves  of  the  poor. 
Thus  in  religious  instruction  and  church  song  the  founda- 
tions of  the  Christian  common  school  were  laid. 

Catechetical  Schools.  —  The  principal  catechetical  school 
was  established  at  Alexandria  A.D.  181,  by  Pantaenus. 
Others  were  located  later  at  Antioch,  Odessa,  and  Nisibis. 
The  Alexandrian  school,  however,  was  by  far  the  most 
important.  Alexandria,  at  the  close  of  the  second  century, 
was  the  seat  of  philosophy,  as  Athens  had  formerly  been. 
It  possessed  the  most  important  library  in  the  world,  and 
students  and  sages  from  all  parts  of  the  world  flocked  to 
this  place  of  learning.  Laurie  says,  "The  great  Alexander, 
in  founding  Alexandria,  connected  Europe,  Asia,  and 
Africa,  not  merely  by  mercantile  bonds,  but  in  their  intel- 
lectual and  literary  life.  Here  arose,  under  the  Ptolemies, 
a  complete  system  of  higher  instruction,  and  libraries  such 
as  the  world  had  not  before  seen.  The  books  were  lodged 
in  the  temple  of  Serapis,  and  accumulated  to  the  number 
of  seven  hundred  thousand.  They  formed  the  record  of  all 
human  thought,  until  they  fell  a  prey  to  internal  civic  and 


112  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION- 

religious  dissensions.  The  Serapeum  dates  from  B.C.  298, 
and,  after  recovering  from  the  fire  of  B.C.  48,  it  finally  dis- 
appeared about  A.D.  640." 

Under  the  stimulus  of  these  surroundings,  and  with  such 
an  abundance  of  literary  material  at  command,  pagans  and 
Christians  vied  with  each  other  in  their  search  for  truth. 
But  the  pagans  had  better  schools  and  better  means  of 
preparing  themselves  for  intellectual  combat.  Christian 
teachers  were  called  upon  to  defend  their  faith  against 
subtle  philosophers  and  trained  thinkers,  who  had  had  the 
advantage  of  excellent  schools.  In  order  to  meet  this 
apparent  defect  and  fortify  themselves  against  their  skill- 
ful opponents,  the  Christians  established  the  catechetical 
school  at  Alexandria,  the  most  celebrated  school  of  its 
kind  at  that  period.  It  took  the  name  catechetical  from 
the  fact  that  the  method  of  instruction  was  largely  that  of 
catechising,  though  lectures  were  also  given.  Many  pagans 
had  been  converted  to  Christianity,  and  it  was  necessary  that 
they  should  be  taught  the  reason  of  their  faith,  in  order 
that  they  might  maintain  their  ground  when  they  came  in 
contact  with  unbelievers.  This  was  particularly  necessary, 
if  Christianity  was  to  hold  its  own,  in  a  city  like  Alexandria, 
where  so  many  learned  men  had  gathered.  It  was  also 
necessary  for  the  extension  of  the  new  faith  among  men 
of  superior  intelligence.  Thus  the  object  of  the  catecheti- 
cal school  was  to  instruct  learned  men  in  the  doctrines  and 
usages  of  the  Church,  to  prepare  believers  to  meet  the 
arguments  of  the  philosophers,  and  to  train  teachers. 

While  it  was  a  sort  of  theological  school,  it  also  taught 
philosophy,  rhetoric,  grammar,  and  geometry.  From  the 
nature  of  things  it  will  be  seen  that  the  catechetical  school 
was  for  adults  only,  and  it  may  be  called  a  kind  of  uni- 
versity, whose  chief  attention  was  given  to  the  study  of 


THE  FIRST  CHRISTIAN  SCHOOLS  113 

the  Scriptures  and  the  promulgation  of  religious  doctrine. 
The  catechetical  school  was  much  higher  than  the  cate- 
chumen school  in  its  course  of  study,  and  in  the  intelligence 
and  learning  of  its  students  and  professors. 

CLEMENT  OF  ALEXANDRIA  (150-220) 

Among  the  most  promising  of  the  pupils  of  Pantaenus 
was  Clement  of  Alexandria,  who  was  his  successor  in  the 
direction  of  the  school.  Clement  was  brought  up  a  pagan, 
but  was  not  satisfied  with  the  heathen  religion,  and  made 
a  careful  study  of  Christianity.  He  traveled  everywhere, 
and  sought  out  old  men  who  had  listened  to  the  apostles, 
or  whose  parents  had  done  so ;  and  thus  he  hoped  to  learn 
the  truth  directly.  As  a  result  of  his  research,  he  became 
profoundly  impressed  with  the  purity  of  the  morals  of  the 
Christians  and  the  truth  of  their  religion.  He  was  a  great 
teacher  as  well  as  Father  of  the  Church. 

His  Pedagogy. —  i.  Faith  is  the  cornerstone  of  knowledge. 

2.  Mosaic  law  and  heathen  philosophy  are  not  opposed 
to  each  other,  but  simply  parts  of  the  same  truth.     Both 
prepared  the  way  for  Christianity.     Jewish  law  and  Greek 
philosophy  are   steps  in  the    development   of   the    world 
which  prepare  the  way  for  revelation.     Christianity  is  the 
fulfillment  of  law  and  philosophy. 

3.  He  brought  all  the  speculations  of  the  Christians  and 
the  culture  of  the  Greeks  to  bear  upon  Christian  truth,  and 
sought  to  harmonize  the  two. 

The  teachings  of  Clement  gain  in  importance  when  we 
remember  the  bitter  strife  in  the  Church  over  the  use  of 
classic  literature,  which  lasted  for  centuries,  and  the 
scholastic  movement  a  thousand  years  later,  which  also 
sought  to  harmonize  philosophy  and  religion. 

HIST.   OF  ED.  —  8 


114  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

ORIGEN  (186-253) 

Origen  was  a  pupil  of  Clement  in  the  catechetical 
school  at  Alexandria,  and  became  his  successor.  Besides 
being  brought  up  in  an  atmosphere  of  culture  in  his 
native  city,  and  surrounded  by  influences  that  stimulated 
intellectual  growth,  he  was  fortunate  in  having  a  man  of 
learning  for  his  father.  From  him  he  learned  Greek,  mathe- 
matics, grammar,  rhetoric,  logic,  and  a  knowledge  of  the 
Holy  Scriptures.  He  began  to  teach  in  the  catechetical 
school  when  only  eighteen  years  of  age,  a  remarkable 
fact  when  one  remembers  that  he  had  among  his  students 
learned  pagan  philosophers,  and  that  it  was  very  unusual 
for  so  young  a  man  to  be  allowed  to  teach.  He  was 
abstemious  in  his  habits,  self-sacrificing,  generous,  and 
withal  consistent  in  his  life. 

Origen's  Pedagogy.  —  i.  Never  teach  pupils  anything 
that  you  do  not  yourself  practice. 

2.  The  end  of  education  is  to  grow  into  the  likeness  of 
God. 

3.  Pupils  must  be  taught  to  investigate  for  themselves. 

4.  The  teacher  must  seek  to  correct  the  bad  habits  of 
his  pupils,  as  well  as  to  give  them  intellectual  instruction. 

Under  Origen,  the  catechetical  school  at  Alexandria 
reached  its  highest  prosperity,  and  its  decay  began  soon 
after  his  death.  Already  in  the  middle  of  the  fourth 
century  its  power  and  influence  were  practically  gone. 

None  of  the  other  catechetical  schools  ever  reached  the 
fame  of  that  at  Alexandria,  and  they,  too,  gradually 
disappeared.  Indeed,  as  the  Roman  Empire  became  Chris- 
tianized, and  as  Christians  gained  in  education  and  intel- 
ligence, there  was  less  and  less  occasion  for  the  existence 
of  schools  of  this  character. 


CHAPTER   XVII 

CONFLICT  BETWEEN  PAGAN  AND  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION 

Literature.  —  Lord,  Beacon  Lights;  Spofford.  Library  of  Historical 
Characters ;  White,  Eighteen  Christian  Centuries ;  Fisher,  Beginnings  of 
Christianity ;  Azarias,  Essays  Educational ;  Allies,  The  Formation  of 
Christendom  ;  Allies,  The  Monastic  Life ;  Maitland,  The  Dark  Ages. 


GENERAL  DISCUSSION 

As  Christianity  became  more  powerful ;  as  the  Roman 
nation  privately  and  officially  accepted  the  new  religion ;  as 
the  bishops  of  the  Church  came  more  and  more  to  be 
recognized  as  the  vicegerents  of  Christ  and  the  apostles ; 
as  the  Church  authorities  became  convinced  that  tolerance 
of  paganism  was  dangerous  to  believers,  and  irreconcilable 
with  the  principles  of  Christianity,  — as  these  things  became 
apparent,  it  was  seen  that  nothing  would  suffice  short  of 
the  utter  destruction  of  pagan  schools.  Pagan  philosophy 
and  art  were  tolerated  only  as  they  served  the  Church. 
Pagan  education  had  an  earthly  purpose;  the  new  educa- 
tion, a  spiritual  aim,  a  preparation  for  eternal  life. 

The  pagan  temples  and  schools  preserved  the  spirit  of 
paganism  long  after  the  Roman  Empire  had  become  Chris- 
tian, and  the  leaders  of  Christianity  finally  became  con- 
vinced that  ultimate  success  would  be  reached  only  when 
these  institutions  were  destroyed.  The  conflict  between 
these  two  parties  continued  during  the  fifth  century 
and  until  529,  when  a  complete  victory  was  gained 
by  the  Christians.  After  529  we  have  therefore  only 

"5 


Il6  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

Christian  schools  to  consider.  For  the  next  thousand 
years  education  was  entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  Church, 
whose  power  was  not  always  exercised  for  the  good  of 
humanity,  but  often  for  the  furtherance  of  her  own  ends. 
Still,  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  all  that  was  done  for 
education  was  done  by  her,  and  therefore  the  world  owes 
her  a  debt  of  gratitude,  as  later  pages  will  show.  She  did 
not  undertake  the  education  of  the  masses,  a  task  that  was 
beyond  her  power,  and  perhaps  beyond  the  scope  of  her 
vision.  Yet  great  honor  is  due  the  Church  for  what  was 
accomplished  in  education  during  the  Middle  Ages,  and  to 
her  alone  must  be  given  credit  for  an  advancement  in  civil- 
ization by  no  means  small,  considering  the  difficulties  to  be 
met  and  the  obstacles  to  be  overcome.  During  this  long 
period  there  were  many  bright  spots  in  the  educational 
firmament,  many  brilliant  leaders  of  the  Church  who  also 
were  conspicuous  educators,  and  many  important  move- 
ments toward  higher  civilization.  An  examination  of  this 
period  has  led  recent  historians  to  abandon  the  term 
"  Dark  Ages."  A  more  careful  study  of  some  of  these 
leaders  and  the  movements  that  they  inaugurated  will  be 
reserved  to  later  pages. 

'We  shall  find  the  spirit  of  the  period  best  illustrated  by  a 
study  of  two  great  men  who  are  preeminent  in  the  educa- 
tional affairs  of  the  time,  —  namely,  Tertullian  and  St. 
Augustine. 

TERTULLIAN  (150-230)! 

Tertullian  was  born  at  Carthage  of  pagan  parents.  He 
was  converted  to  Christianity  when  forty  years  of  age, 
and  by  his  talent,  Kis  zeal  for  the  new  religion,  and  his 
faithfulness,  he  rose  rapidly  until  he  became  Bishop  of 

1  See  Draper,  "  Conflict  between  Religion  and  Science,"  p.  59. 


PAGAN  AND   CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  117 

Carthage.  He  was  an  orator,  a  writer,  and  a  teacher.  His 
immoderate  zeal  led  him  into  the  vice  of  rigorism,  quite 
foreign  to  the  real  spirit  of  the  Christian  religion.  He 
joined  the  Montanists,  a  sect  that  believed  in  withdrawal 
from  the  world,  the  unlawfulness  of  second  marriages, 
and  the  speedy  second  advent  of  the  Savior.  Having 
received  a  thorough  training  as  a  jurist  at  Rome,  he 
became  a  great  controversialist. 

He  was  the  founder  of  Christian  Latin  literature,  being 
bitterly  opposed  to  everything  pagan.  He  would  use 
nothing  manufactured  by  the  pagans,  would  not  dress  like 
them,  nor  have  anything  to  do  with  their  schools  or  writ- 
ings. This  of  course  excluded  classic  literature,  and  was 
in  direct  opposition  to  the  teachings  of  the  catechetical 
schools,  especially  that  of  Alexandria.  Tertullian's  attempt 
to  create  a  literature  for  the  schools  which  should  take  the 
place  of  classic  literature,  while  it  produced  discord  for 
centuries,  and  influenced  other  great  men  to  follow  his 
example,  had  no  permanent  result.  Perhaps  the  down- 
fall of  paganism  may  have  removed  all  danger  to  the 
Christians  from  pagan  philosophy  and  letters ;  at  all 
events  it  is  certain  that  in  later  centuries  the  Church  was 
most  efficient  in  preserving  them.  Tertullian  held  that 
philosophy  of  whatever  kind  is  dangerous,  claiming  that 
it  makes  man  arrogant,  and  less  inclined  to  faith. 

In  the  fourth  century  the  Fathers  of  the  Church  were 
opposed  to  pagan  literature.  The  "Apostolic  Constitu- 
tions "  commanded,  "  Refrain  from  all  writings  of  the 
heathen  ;  for  what  hast  thou  to  do  with  strange  discourses, 
laws,  or  false  prophets,  which,  in  truth,  turn  aside  from 
the  faith  those  who  are  weak  in  understanding."  It  was 
urged  that,  "  As  the  offspring  of  the  pagan  world,  if  not, 
indeed,  inspired  by  demons,  they  were  dangerous  to  the 


Il8  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

i 

new  faith."  This  introduced  into  education  a  narrow  view, 
which  evoked  many  bitter  discussions,  and  which  it  took 
centuries  to  eradicate. 


ST.   AUGUSTINE  (354-430)  . 

Augustine  was  born  in  Numidia,  Africa.  His  father 
was  a  pagan,  and  his  mother  a  devout  Christian.  Augus- 
tine grew  up  in  the  faith  of  neither,  and  in  his  early 
years  seems  to  have  had  no  settled  belief.  As  a  student, 
he  was  wild  and  profligate,  though  attentive  to  his  studies. 
He  became  thoroughly  versed  in  Greek  and  Latin.  He 
studied  at  Carthage  and  later  at  Milan.  At  the  latter  place 
he  made  the  acquaintance  of  St.  Ambrose,  Bishop  of 
Milan,  who  was  instrumental  in  Augustine's  conversion. 
His  life  was  radically  changed,  and  he  who  had  been  the 
wild,  careless  unbeliever  became  the  greatest  of  the 
Church  Fathers.  Like  Tertullian,  he  condemned  the  very 
classic  literature  to  which  he  was  indebted  for  his  intellec- 
tual greatness.  His  greatest  literary  works  are  "  City  of 
God  "  and  "  Confessions." 

"Confessions."  —  In  this  work  are  found  his  chief  peda- 
gogical teachings.  Karl  Schmidt  says,  "  In  his  '  Confes- 
sions'  he  develops  a  complete  psychology  of  the  human 
soul,  from  which  the  pedagogue  can  learn  more  than  from 
many  theories  of  education." 

This  work  shows  step  by  step  his  own  development 
from  childhood  to  mature  manhood,  —  how  a  word,  a  look, 
an  act  may  awaken  passions,  and  lead  to  evil  desire,  or 
stimulate  to  noble  deed  or  self-sacrificing  consecration. 
From  his  own  life  and  experiences  he  portrays  the  whole 
nature  of  man.  Augustine  is  called  the  "  St.  Paul  of  the 
fifth  century,"  and  he  certainly  was  the  greatest  man, 


PAGAN  AND   CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  1 19 

since  Paul,  that  the  Church  has  produced.  In  his  writings 
is  found  the  most  luminous  exposition  of  the  Catholic  doc- 
trine, and  probably  Augustine  is  the  most  noted  of  all 
Catholic  Fathers.  In  the  domain  of  theology  and  morals 
he  based  all  teaching  on  authority  rather  than  on  investi- 
gation, yet  the  excessive  application  of  this  principle  to 
subjects  of  physical  science  was  destined  later  on  to  hinder 
investigators  in  the  fields  of  scientific  research.  Draper 
says,  "  Augustine  antagonized  science  and  Christianity  for 
more  than  fifteen  centuries."  This  was  doubtless  due  to 
the  application  of  the  principle  of  authority  in  fields  that 
Augustine  did  not  contemplate.  But  we  shall  have  occa- 
sion to  recur  to  this  subject  in  later  pages. 

Augustine's   Pedagogy.  —  i.    All  teaching   is  based  on 
faith  and  authority. 

2.  All   pagan   literature   must   be   excluded    from   the 
schools. 

3.  The  chief   subject  in  the  school   course  is  history 
pursued  in  the  narrative  form. 

4.  Make   abundant   use  of  observation    in    instruction. 

5.  The  teacher  must  be  earnest  and  enthusiastic. 
While  the   Roman   Empire  became  officially  Christian 

in  the  fourth  century  under  Constantine,  it  was  not 
until  Justinian  decreed  the  abolition  of  pagan  schools 
and  temples,  A.D.  529,  that  paganism,  as  we  have 
seen,  was  finally  destroyed.  Thus  the  long  conflict  was 
ended,  and  henceforth  we  have  to  do  only  with  Chris- 
tian education.  We  now  enter  upon  the  thousand  years 
of  the  world's  history  known  as  the  Middle  Ages,  the 
close  of  which  brings  us  to  the  Reformation. 


CHAPTER   XVIII 

MONASTIC  EDUCATION 

Literature.  —  Lord,  Beacon  Lights;  Lecky,  History  of  European 
Morals ;  Myers,  Mediaeval  and  Modern  History ;  White,  Eighteen 
Christian  Centuries ;  Harper,  Book  of  Facts ;  Mrs.  Jameson,  Legends 
of  Monastic  Orders;  Gasquet,  Henry  VIII.  and  the  English  Mon- 
asteries ;  Chdteaubriand,  The  Genius  of  Christianity ;  Allies,  The 
Monastic  Life;  Taunton,  The  English  Black  Monks  of  St.  Benedict. 


Monasteries.  —  Monasteries  were  established  as_early  as 
the  third  century  A.D.  ;  but  it  was  not  until  the  sixth  cen- 
tury that  they  became  powerful.  The  spirit  of  asceticism, 
urged  by  the  Church  as  one  of  the  most  important  virtues, 
took  a  strong  hold  upon  the  people,  and  led  many  to  with- 
draw from  the  world.  For  such  the  founding  of  mon- 
asteries became  a  necessity.  The  monasteries  were  the 
result  of  the  ascetic  spirit,  and  their  teaching  was  based 
upon  authority  and  not  upon  free  investigation  or  original 
research.  Thus  there  was  introduced  into  society  .and 
education  a  principle  that,  wrongly  interpreted,  impeded 
progress  for  a  thousand  years. 

Most  of  the  time  during  this  period  the  Church  held 
supremacy  over  the  State  with  authority  unquestioned. 
This  authority  was  carried  not  only  into  spiritual  matters, 
but  also  into  social,  political,  and  educational  affairs. 
Everything  that  conflicted  with  that  authority,  or  with  the 
decrees  of  the  Church,  was  condemned.  Even  scientific 
discoveries  that  did  not  harmonize  with  preconceived  and 
accepted  theories  were  reluctantly  received,  if  not  abso- 
lutely rejected.  Discoverers  in  the  realm  of  science  were 
silenced,  and  sometimes  actually  punished,  for  promul- 


MONASTIC  EDUCATION'  121 

gating  theories  contrary  to  the  teachings  of  the  Church. 
A  notable  example  is  that  of  Galileo,  who  taught  the 
Copernican  theory  of  the  universe,  and  for  which  teaching 
he  was  condemned  to  imprisonment  and  a  ban  put  upon 
his  work.  This  exaggerated  interpretation  of  authority 
worked  harm  to  the  Church.  It  seemed  to  be  forgotten 
that  the  Bible  is  a  book  of  religion  and  morals  and  not 
a  text-book  of  science. 

The  Benedictines. — The  most  important  monastic  order 
from  the  standpoint  of  education  was  that  of  the  Benedic- 
tines., St.  Benedict  founded  the  first  monastery  of  the 
order  that  bears  his  name  —  Monte  Cassino,  nejir  Naples, 
—  in  j2Q.  It  will  be  remembered  that  this  is  the  date 
of  the  abolition  of  pagan  schools  by  Justinian.  On  the 
site  of  Monte  Cassino  had  stood  a  pagan  school.  The 
monastery  which  supplanted  it  remains  to  the  present  day. 

Benedict's  two  important  principles  —  to  which  clois- 
ters hitherto  had  been  unaccustomed  —  were  industry  and 
strict  discipline.  These  principles  made  the  Benedictine 
the  most  successful  and  beneficent  of  all  monastic  orders. 
It  grew  rapidly,  and  within  _pne  hundred  years  from  its 
foundation  there  were  more  than  two  hundred  and  fifty 
Benedictine  monasteries.  It  is  claimed  that  the  order  has 
produced  4600  bishops,  1600  archbishops,  200  cardinals, 
40  popes,  50  patriarchs,  4  emperors,  12  empresses,  46 
kings,  41  queens,  3600  canonized  saints,  and  15,700  au- 
thors, and  that  prior  to  the  French  Revolution  it  possessed 
37,000  cloisters.  There  have  been  times  when  the  wealth  of 
this  order  in  some  states  comprised  more  than  half  of  all 
the  property.  The  Benedictine  monks  tilled  the  soil  of  the 
country  surrounding  their  monasteries,  literally  making 
the  "  desert  blossom  as  the  rose."  They  were  untiring 
in  zeal  for  the  Church  and  in  deeds  of  mercy.  They 


122  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION- 

established-cloister  schools  in  Italy,  France,  Spain,  Eng- 
land, Ireland,  Germany,  and  Switzerland.  Monte  Cassino 
(529),  Italy;  Canterbury  (586)  and  Oxford  (ninth  cen- 
tury), England;  St.  Gall  (613),  Switzerland;  Fulda  (744), 
Constance,  Hamburg,  and  Cologne  (tenth  century),  Ger- 
many ;  Lyons,  Tours,  Paris,  and  Rouen  (tenth  century), 
France  ;  Salzburg  (696),  Austria ;  and  many  other  schools 
were  founded  chiefly  by  the  Benedictines.  Among  the 
many  great  teachers  that  they  produced  were  Alcuin  of 
England,  Boniface  of  Germany,  Thomas  Aquinas,  Duns 
Scotus,  and  Abelard.  It  thus  appears  that  the  Benedic- 
tine 'order  took  a  deep  interest  in  education,  and  their 
work  deserves  a  most  honorable  place  among  the  educa- 
tional agencies  of  the  period  under  discussion. 

The  Seven  Liberal  Arts.  —  We  have  seen  that  much 
attention  was  always  given  to  religious  instruction  in  the 
Christian  schools.  The  Bible,  the  doctrines  of  the  Church, 
and  its  rites  and  ceremonies  were  at  first  exclusively  taught. 
But  later  secular  branches  were  introduced.  These  secu- 
lar branches  were  known  as  the  seven  liberal  arts,  which 
comprised  the  following  subjects  :  — 

Reading  and 


The  Seven 
Liberal  Arts. 


1.  Grammar. 

I.  Trivium 1  .     .     .     , 

2.  Rhetoric. 


3-  Logic. 

I.  Arithmetic. 


TT  ,  .  .       .  2.  Music. 

II.  Ouadnvium J  .     .    <        _ 

3.  Geometry. 

1 4.  Astronomy. 

This  course  required  seven  years.     Latin  was  the  only 
language  used,  and  consequently  the  native  tongues  suf- 

1  Laurie  thinks  that  these  names  were  first  appropriately  used  about  the  end 
of  the  fourth  century. 


MONASTIC  EDUCATION  123 

fered.  The  trivium  was  the  most  popular  course ; 
such  knowledge  was  considered  an  absolute  necessity 
for  any  one  making  claim  to  culture.  After  completing 
the  trivium,  those  who  wished  for  higher  culture  studied 
the  quadrivium. 

Under  the  term  grammar  were  included  reading  and 
writing,  as  well  as  the  construction  and  use  of  language. 
In  rhetoric  the  works  of  Quintilian  and  Cicero  were  studied, 
and  sermons  delivered  in  the  churches  were  made  to  serve 
for  a  practical  application  of  the  rules.  In  logic  the 
works  of  St.  Augustine  were  used  in  the  exercises  of  con- 
structing syllogisms,  of  disputation,  and  of  definition.  In 
arithmetic,  before  the  introduction  of  the  Arabic  notation, 
numbers  were  considered  to  have  a  mysterious  meaning. 
The  hands  and  fingers  were  used  to  indicate  numbers. 
For  example,  the  left  hand  upon  the  breast  indicated  ten 
thousand ;  both  hands  folded,  one  hundred  thousand.  For 
the  practical  purposes  of  life  the  reckoning  board  was 
used.  This  was  a  board  with  lines  drawn  upon  it,  between 
which  pebbles  were  placed  to  indicate  the  number  to  be 
expressed.  For  example,  the  number  3146  would  be  in- 
dicated as  follows  :  — 

i 

/ 

Music  was  designed  for  the  church  service.  Knowledge 
of  music  was  held  to  be  positively  essential  to  priest  and 
teacher.  Under  the  term  music  were  also  sometimes  in- 
cluded the  fine  arts,  painting,  drawing,  architecture,  sculp- 
ture, etc. 

In  geometry  Euclid  was  used.  Lines,  angles,  surfaces, 
and  solids  were  studied.  With  geometry  there  seems  to 
have  been  connected  a  meager  study  of  geography.  Early 


124  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

maps  have  been  found,  one  dating  from  the  seventh  cen- 
tury, being  in  possession  of  St.  Gall  monastery.  Astronomy 
was  closely  connected  with  astrology.  Its  practical  appli- 
cation was  limited  to  the  formation  of  the  Church  calendar, 
fixing  the  date  of  Easter,  etc. 

This  celebrated  course  of  study  formed  the  basis  of  sec- 
ular instruction  in  the  monasteries,  and,  indeed,  in  all 
schools,  for  several  centuries.  Religious  instruction  al- 
ways remained  a  prominent  feature  of  the  work.  History 
had  no  place  in  the  curriculum. 

Summary  of  Benefits  conferred  upon  Civilization  by  the 
Monasteries. —  i.  They  preserved  classic  literature.  Though 
many  of  the  Church  Fathers,  as  we  have  seen,  were  bit- 
terly opposed  to  pagan  literature,  the  monasteries  copied 
it  with  great  industry  and  preserved  it  with  care.  The 
archives  of  these  institutions  have  yielded  up  some  most 
remarkable  and  valuable  manuscripts  that  otherwise  would 
have  been  lost  to  the.  world. 

2.  They  kept  alive  the  flickering  flame  of  Christianity. 
The    Middle  Ages  were  indeed  dark  for  Christianity,  as 
unbelief,  ignorance,  and  faithlessness  prevailed.     But  the 
monasteries  were  centers  of  religious  interest  and  zeal. 

3.  They  maintained    educational    interest    during  this 
long,  dark  period.     We  have    seen  that  the  monasteries 
contained  the  only  schools.     Through  them  the  Church 
kept  up  whatever  educational  interest  survived  during  the 
Middle  Ages,  and  her  work  then  conserved  the  energies 
employed  in  later  educational  enterprise. 

4.  They  originated  a  great  course  of  study  by  giving  to 
the  world  the  seven  liberal  arts. 

5.  They  furnished  places  of  refuge  for  the  oppressed. 


CHAPTER   XIX 

SCHOLASTICISM 

Literature.  —  Fisher,  History  of  the  Reformation ;  Lord,  Beacon 
Lights ;  Thalheimer,  Mediaeval  and  Modern  History ;  Schivegler,  His- 
tory of  Philosophy ;  Seebohm,  Era  of  the  Protestant  Revolution ; 
Hegel,  Philosophy  of  History;  Azarias,  Philosophy  of  Literature; 
Azarias,  Essays  Philosophical ;  Schwickerath,  Jesuit  Education,  its 
History  and  Principles. 

COMPAYRE  remarks,  "  It  has  been  truly  said  that  there 
were  three  Renascences :  the  first,  which  owed  its  begin- 
ning to  Charlemagne,  and  whose  brilliancy  did  not  last ; 
the  second,  that  of  the  twelfth  century,  the  issue  of  which 
was  Scholasticism ;  and  the  third,  the  great  Renaissance 
of  the  sixteenth  century,  which  still  lasts,  and  which  the 
French  Revolution  has  completed."  J 

As  scholasticism,  in  a  sense,  was  the  rival  of  monasti- 
cism,  and  as  it  covered  a  large  part  of  the  Middle  Ages, 
we  shall  discuss  it  at  this  point.  Scholasticism  was  a 
movement  having  for  its  object  the  harmonizing  of 
ancient  philosophy,  especially  that  of  Aristotle,  with  the 
doctrines  of  Christianity.  It  covered  a  period  reaching 
from  the  ninth  to  the  fifteenth  century,  and  displayed  its 
greatest  activity  between  the  eleventh  and  thirteenth  cen- 
turies. It  is  called  the  philosophy  of  the  Middle  Ages. 
The  term  scholastic  is  also  applied  generally  to  forms  of 
reasoning  which  abound  in  subtleties.  Scholasticism  was  a 
dissent  from  the  teachings  of  St.  Augustine  and  the  ascet- 
ics. It  laid  chief  stress  upon  reason  instead  of  authority, 

1  "  History  of  Pedagogy,"  p.  71. 
I25 


126  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

thus  asserting  a  vitally  different  principle,  which  would 
tend  to  change  the  whole  spirit  of  education. 

The  first  prominent  leader  of  this  movement  was  Erigena, 
who  lived  during  the  ninth  century,  and  was  the  most  inter- 
esting writer  of  the  Middle  Ages.  He  was  also  a  great 
teacher,  and  was  called  to  give  instruction  at  the  court  of 
Charles  the  Bald,  and  afterward  at  Oxford.  He  opposed 
the  prevailing  tendencies  of  the  monasteries  to  base  all 
teaching  on  authority,  and  made  its  foundation  philosophy 
and  reason.  Schwegler1  denominates  Anselm(born  about 
1033)  as  "  the  beginner  and  founder  of  scholasticism." 
Thus  it  was  not  till  the  eleventh  century  "  that  there  was 
developed  anything  that  might  be  properly  termed  a  Chris- 
tian philosophy.  This  was  the  so-called  scholasticism."  z 

Greater  than  either  of  these  was  Abelard  (born  1079), 
who  by  his  eloquence  attracted  great  numbers  of  students 
to  Paris.  It  is  said  that  "few  teachers  ever  held  such 
sway  as  did  Abelard  for  a  time."  He  made  Paris  the  cen- 
ter of  the  scholastic  movement,  attracting  students  from 
all  parts  of  the  world.  He  did  more  than  any  of  his 
predecessors  to  give  accepted  ecclesiastical  doctrines  a 
rational  expression.  Scholasticism  influenced  the  estab- 
lishment of  institutions  of  learning  in  England,  Germany, 
Italy,  and  Spain,  some  of  which  later  developed  into  great 
universities.  Thomas  Aquinas,  Duns  Scotus,  and  Occam 
may  also  be  mentioned  as  great  schoolmen.  Of  the  first 
two  Schwegler  says,3  "  At  the  summit  of  scholasticism  we 
must  place  the  two  incontestably  greatest  masters  of  the 
scholastic  art  and  method,  Thomas  Aquinas  (Dominican, 
1225-1274)  and  Duns  Scotus  (Franciscan,  1265-1308),  the 
founders  of  two  schools,  into  which  after  them  the  whole 
scholastic  theology  divides  itself, — the  former  exalting  the 

1  «  History  of  Philosophy,"  p.  186.          2  Ibid.,  p.  185.          »  Ibid.,  p.  186. 


SCHOLASTICISM  127 


understanding  (intellectus),  and  the  latter  the  vtQ( 
as  the  highest  principle,  both  being  driven  into  essentially 
differing  directions  by  this  opposition  of  the  theoretical  and 
practical.  Even  with  this  began  the  downfall  of  scholasti- 
cism ;  its  highest  point  was  also  the  turning  point  to  its 
self-destruction.  The  rationality  of  the  dogmas,  the  one- 
ness of  faith  and  knowledge,  had  been  constantly  their 
fundamental  premise  ;  but  this  premise  fell  away,  and  the 
whole  basis  of  their  metaphysics  was  given  up  in  principle 
the  moment  Duns  Scotus  placed  the  problem  of  theology 
in  the  practical.  When  the  practical  and  the  theoretical 
became  divided,  and  still  more  when  thought  and  being 
were  separated  by  nominalism,  philosophy  broke  loose  from 
theology  and  knowledge  from  faith.  Knowledge  assumed 
its  position  above  faith  and  above  authority,  and  the  reli- 
gious consciousness  broke  with  the  traditional  dogma." 

Toward  the  end,  another  thing  contributed  to  the  down- 
fall of  scholasticism.  The  philosophical  subtleties  of  dis- 
cussion made  the  schoolmen  lose  sight  of  the  main  issue, 
and  devote  themselves  to  the  most  ridiculous  questions.1 
Schwickerath  remarks,2  "  It  can  not  and  need  not  be  de- 
nied that  the  education  imparted  by  the  mediaeval  scholas- 
tics was  in  many  regards  defective.  It  was  at  once  too 
dogmatic  and  disputatious.  Literary  studies  were  com- 
paratively neglected  ;  frequently  too  much  importance  was 
attached  to  purely  dialectical  subtleties.  .  .  .  The  defects 
of  scholasticism  became  especially  manifest  in  the  course 
of  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries,  when  much  time 
and  energy  were  wasted  in  discussing  useless  refinements 
of  thought."  That  it  did  a  great  deal  of  good  will  appear 
from  the  following  summary  :  — 

Summary  of  the  Benefits  of  Scholasticism.  —  i.    It  at- 

1  See  K.  Schmidt,  "  Geschichte  der  Padagogik,"  Vol.  II,  p.  265,  for  subjects 
of  these  discussions.  2  "  Jesuit  Education,"  p.  46. 


128  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

tempted  to  harmonize   philosophy  with   Christianity,  and 
may  be  called  the  first  Christian  philosophy. 

2.  It  sought  to  base  learning  on  reason  and  investiga- 
tion, rather  than  on  authority.     In  this  we  find  the  first 
impulse  of  that  movement  which  later  led  to  the  founding 
of  science. 

3.  Many  universities  were  established  through  the  scho- 
lastic influence,  notably,  Paris,  Heidelberg,  Bologna,  Prague, 
and  Vienna. 

4.  While  it  failed  to  establish  them,  it  at  least  recognized 
the  desirableness  of  a  universal  language  for  schools,  and 
a  universal  church  for  man. 

5.  Although,  with  the  exception  of  the  universities  which 
it  founded,  its  direct  work  in  education  cannot  be  said  to 
have  been  permanent,  yet  it  imparted  fresh  vigor  to  edu- 
cational endeavors. 

6.  Schwegler  says,1  "  It  .  .  .  introduced  to  the  world 
another  principle  than  that  of  the  old  Church,  the  principle 
of  the  thinking  spirit,  the  self-consciousness  of  the  reason, 
or  at  least  prepared  the  way  for  the  victory  of  this  princi- 
ple.    Even  the  deformities  and  unfavorable  side  of  scho- 
lasticism,   the   many   absurd   questions    upon   which    the 
scholastics  divided,   even  their  thousandfold  unnecessary 
and  accidental  distinctions,  their  inquisitiveness  and  subtle- 
ties, all  sprang  from  a  rational  principle,  and  grew  out  of 
a  spirit  of  investigation,  which  could  only  utter  itself  in 
this  way  under  the  all-powerful  ecclesiastical  spirit  of  the 
time." 

1  "  History  of  Philosophy,"  p.  189. 


CHAPTER   XX 

CHARLEMAGNE 

Literature.  —  Ferris,  Great  Leaders;  Emerton,  Introduction  to  the 
Middle  Ages ;  Guizot,  History  of  Civilization ;  Wells,  The  Age  of 
Charlemagne ;  Bryce,  The  Holy  Roman  Empire ;  Church,  The  Begin- 
ning of  the  Middle  Ages ;  Lord,  Beacon  Lights ;  White,  Eighteen 
Christian  Centuries  ;  Laurie,  Rise  of  the  Universities  ;  Bulfinch,  Legends 
of  Charlemagne  ;  Encyclopaedia  Britannica,  Article  on  Charlemagne. 


History,  Character,  and  Purpose.  —  Charlemagne  was  not 
only  the  greatest  ruler  of  the  Middle  Ages,  but  one  of  the 
greatest  and  wisest  rulers  the  world  has  known.  By  birth 
and  instinct  he  belonged  to  the  Teutonic  race,  to  which,  as 
before  stated,  the  world's  enlightenment  has  been  com- 
mitted. Like  Alexander  the  Great,  Charlemagne  united 
many  peoples  into  one,  until  he  ruled  over  the  territory 
now  included  in  France,  the  Netherlands,  Germany, 
Austria,  and  Italy,  —  in  fact,  his  empire  comprised  the 
richest  part  of  central  Europe.  He  designed  to  rebuild 
the  Roman  Empire,  and  was  crowned  "  Emperor  of  Rome  " 
by  the  Pope,  in  the  year  800.  While  he  protected  the  Pope 
and  was  loyal  to  him,  he  did  not  admit  the  papal  supremacy 
in  matters  of  State. 

Two  very  important  influences  were  wisely  utilized  by 
Charlemagne  in  his  work  of  civilization,  namely,  the  politi- 
cal ideas  of  the  Teutons,  and  the  adhering  power  of  the 
Christian  church.  He  cherished  German  customs,  and 
left,  in  various  parts  of  Germany,  many  monuments  of  his 
HIST.  OF  ED.  —  9  129 


130  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

love  for  that  people.  He  was  of  commanding  presence, 
being  seven  feet  in  height,  and  of  good  proportions,  blond 
in  type,  and  of  genial  manners.  His  real  capital  was  at 
Aix-la-Chapelle,  but  Rome  was  a  nominal  capital.  Bui- 
finch  says  of  Charlemagne :  "  Whether  we  regard  him  as 
a  warrior  or  legislator,  as  a  patron  of  learning  or  as  the 
civilizer  of  a  barbarous  nation,  he  is  entitled  to  our  warmest 
admiration."  If  his  successors  had  possessed  the  ability, 
enterprise,  and  breadth  of  view  that  characterized  him, 
the  world  might  never  have  known  the  period  in  history 
commonly  called  the  "  Dark  Ages." 

Personal  Education.  — When  Charlemagne  arrived  at  the 
estate  of  manhood  and  ascended  the  throne,  he  was  igno- 
rant of  letters  and  lacked  any  considerable  intellectual 
training.  His  education  had  been  that  of  the  knight  who 
believed  that  skill  in  the  use  of  arms  and  physical  prowess 
were  of  far  more  importance  than  a  knowledge  of  letters.1 
After  he  had  come  to  the  throne,  and  especially  after  he 
had  conquered  his  foes  and  had  leisure  to  study  the  wel- 
fare of  his  people,  he  realized  his  deficiencies,  and  sought 
to  overcome  them  by  diligent  study. 

He  called  to  his  court  the  most  learned  men  of  the 
world,  received  personal  instruction  from  them,  and  had 
them  read  to  him  and  converse  with  him  while  at  his 
meals.  In  this  way  he  overcame,  in  a  measure,  the  de- 
fects of  his  early  education.  He  thoroughly  mastered 
Latin,  became  familiar  with  Greek,  and  learned  also  gram- 
mar, rhetoric,  logic,  music,  astronomy,  and  natural  his- 
tory. He  never  learned  to  write  well,  owing  to  the  late 
period  of  life  at  which  he  began,  and  to  the  clumsiness 
of  the  hand  accustomed  to  wielding  the  sword  rather  than 
the  pen. 

1  See  "  Feudal  Education,"  Chap.  XXII. 


CHARLEMAGNE  131 

Among  his  instructors  was  Alcuin  of  England,  the  most 
celebrated  teacher  of  his  time.  Charlemagne  established 
the  "  School  of  the  Palace,"  and  placed  Alcuin  at  its  head. 
Here  the  children  of  the  emperor  as  well  as  his  courtiers 
were  taught.  He  had  his  own  daughters  learn  Latin  and 
Greek.  France  is  indebted  to  Alcuin  for  its  polite  learn- 
ing. Alcuin  was  also  the  counselor  of  the  emperor  in  the 
educational  matters  of  the  empire,  and  it  was  probably  his 
influence  that  led  Charlemagne  to  adopt  such  broad  views 
concerning  the  culture  of  his  people. 

General  Education.  —  We  have  seen  that  the  prevailing 
idea  was  that  education  should  subserve  the  interests  of 
the  Church.  Charlemagne  turned  the  current  of  thought 
toward  the  national  idea.  He  believed  in  religious  train- 
ing, but  wanted  to  found  a  great  State,  and  therefore  in- 
sisted that  those  things  which  encouraged  intelligent 
patriotism  should  be  taught.  He  protected  the  Church, 
but  insisted  that  the  Church  was  subordinate  to  the  State, 
and  that  his  will  was  law  over  both.  Consequently  he 
required  priests  to  preach  in  the  native  tongues  rather 
than  in  Latin,  and  decreed  that  monasteries  that  would 
not  open  their  doors  to  children  for  school  purposes  should 
be  closed.  The  priests,  he  insisted,  should  be  able  to  read 
and  write,  should  have  a  knowledge  of  the  Holy  Scriptures 
and  of  the  chief  doctrines  of  the  Church,  and  should  in- 
struct the  people  in  these  things. 

The  seven  liberal  arts  formed  the  basis  of  school  in- 
struction. Monks  were  not  to  remain  in  idleness  and 
ignorance,  but  were  required  to  teach,  not  only  in  the 
monasteries,  but  also  outside  of  them.  He  also  encouraged 
education  among  his  nobles,  and  plainly  intimated  that 
merit  and  not  noble  birth  would  entitle  them  to  favor. 
Charlemagne  visited  the  schools  himself,  and  required  the 


132  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

bishop  to  report  to  him  their  condition.  He  thus  became 
a  superintendent  of  schools,  being  as  familiar  with  the 
educational  interests  of  his  kingdom  as  he  was  with  every 
other  interest.  He  sought  to  teach  first  the  priests  and 
nobles,  and  after  that  the  masses  of  his  people.  He  in- 
troduced the  practice  of  compulsory  education  for  all  chil- 
dren, and  decreed  that  truant  children  be  first  deprived 
of  food  as  punishment,  and  if  that  did  not"  suffice,  that 
they  be  brought  before  him. 

Reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  and  singing  were  taught, 
especial  attention  being  given  to  music,  which  was  of  use 
in  the  church  services.  The  Apostles'  Creed  and  the 
Lord's  Prayer  were  also  taught.  In  801  Charlemagne 
decreed  that  women  and  children  should  receive  instruc- 
tion in  the  doctrines  of  religion,  because  he  believed  re- 
ligion to  be  the  foundation  of  a  civilized  nation. 

Charlemagne's  career  shines  out  in  brilliant  contrast  with 
the  ignorance  and  superstition  of  his  age.  The  world  was 
not  yet  ripe  for  his  advanced  ideas,  hence  when  the  work 
lost  the  support  of  his  strong  personality,  its  effects  soon 
became  obliterated,  and  a  retrogression  of  civilization 
resulted. 

The  clergy,  who  had  entertained  but  little  sympathy  for 
the  enterprises  of  the  emperor,  soon  closed  the  monas- 
teries to  outside  students,  and  returned  to  the  same 
practices  from  which  the  authority  and  energy  of  Charle- 
magne had  aroused  them.  His  work  was  not  wholly 
in  vain,  however,  for  he  laid  the  foundations  of  the  Prussian 
school  system.1 

Summary  of  Charlemagne's  Work.  —  i.  He  elevated  the 
clergy  by  demanding  greater  educational  qualifications  of 
them  and  by  insisting  that  they  do  their  duty. 

1  Professor  Masius,  Lectures  in  the  University  of  Leipsic. 


CHARLEMA  GNE  1 3  3 

2.  He  gave  dignity  to  native  tongues  by  requiring  the 
priests  to  preach  more  frequently  in  the  vernacular  of  the 
people,  and  thus  helped  to  make  the  services  of  the  Church 
of  greater  profit  to  the  people. 

3.  He  opened  the  cloisters  to  the  purposes  of  education, 
and  thereby  greatly  extended  their  usefulness. 

4.  He    sought    to    perpetuate  religion    and  insure  the 
stability  of  his  empire  by  making  education   compulsory 
and  universal. 

5.  He  believed  in  the  education  of  women. 

6.  He  laid  the   foundations  of   future  school   systems, 
and  indicated  certain  principles  that  are  still  recognized 
as  valid. 


CHAPTER  XXI 

ALFRED  THE  GREAT 

Literature.  —  Ferris,  Great  Leaders  ;  Lord,  Beacon  Lights  ;  Mom- 
bert,  Great  Lives ;  Spofford,  Library  of  Historical  Characters ;  Green, 
History  of  the  English  People. 


History  and  Character.  —  Alfred  became  king  of  the 
West  Saxons  in  871  at  the  age  of  twenty-three.  As  a  boy 
he  had  already  shown  remarkable  energy  and  ability,  and 
as  a  man  he  more  than  fulfilled  the  promise  of  his  early 
years.  England  was  divided  into  several  kingdoms,  the 
Danes  having  taken  possession  of  the  eastern  part  of  the 
island.  Alfred  carried  on  war  against  them  for  many 
years  with  varying  success,  until  he  made  peace  by  skillful 
diplomacy  in  giving  them  territory.  He  afterward  showed 
remarkable  statesmanship  in  winning  them  to  peaceful 
acquiescence  in  his  sovereignty,  and  thus  he  came  to  rule 
over  united  England. 

He  laid  the  foundation  of  England's  naval  greatness  by 
building  ships  to  defend  the  country  against  Danish  pirates. 
Many  stories  are  told  of  his  simplicity,  his  perseverance, 
his  strategy  in  defeating  his  enemies,  and  the  love  with 
which  he  inspired  his  people.  Karl  Schmidt  says,  "  Alfred, 
as  victor  in  fifty-six  battles,  as  lawgiver,  as  king  and  sage, 
as  Christian  and  man,  as  husband  and  father,  is  rightly 
called  — 'The  Great.'" 

He  was  very  methodical  in  his  habits,  and  divided  his 


ALFRED   THE  GREAT  135 

day  into  three  equal  parts  of  eight  hours  each  :  eight 
hours  he  gave  to  government,  eight  hours  to  religious 
devotion  and  study,  and  the  other  eight  hours  to  sleep, 
recreation,  and  the  recuperation  of  his  body. 

Education.  —  Alfred  did  not  learn  to  read  until  twelve 
years  of  age.  His  mother  then  stimulated  him  by  the 
promise  of  a  book  to  that  one  of  her  sons  who  should  first 
commit  to  memory  a  Saxon  poem.  With  indomitable 
energy  he  mastered  reading,  learned  the  poem,  and 
secured  the  prize.  Throughout  his  life  he  gave  much 
attention  to  literary  matters.  He  translated  many  por- 
tions of  the  Bible,  as  well  as  other  books,  into  Anglo- 
Saxon,  and  encouraged  literary  efforts  in  others. 

.  Without  doubt  the  intellectual  activity  of  Charlemagne 
acted  as  a  spur  to  Alfred's  personal  ambition  and  to  his 
desire  to  elevate  his  people.  Although  he  did  not  follow 
the  example  of  Charlemagne  in  seeking  universal  educa- 
tion for  his  people,  he  did  urge  that  the  children  of  every 
freeman  should  be  able  to  read  and  write,  and  should  have 
instruction  in  Latin.  The  distinction  thus  made  in  the 
purposes  of  these  two  great  rulers  has  been  perpetuated 
till  the  present  time,  the  Germans  encouraging  universal 
education,  while  the  English  have  attended  chiefly  to  the 
education  of  the  higher  classes.  Alfred  established  many 
monasteries  and  made  them  centers  of  learning.  It  seems 
clear  that  he  assisted  in  laying  the  foundations  from  which 
Oxford  University  grew.  He  left  his  impress  upon  the 
English  people  as  no  other  ruler  has  done,  implanting 
love  for  law,  justice,  freedom,  national  honor,  and  the 
domestic  virtues  which  characterize  that  nation.  His 
influence  is  felt  upon  English  institutions  to  this  day. 


CHAPTER   XXII 

FEUDAL  EDUCATION 

Literature.  —  Stillt,  Studies  in  Mediaeval  History ;  Bui/inch,  Legends 
of  Charlemagne ;  EmertoK,  Mediaeval  Europe ;  Adams,  Civilization 
during  the  Middle  Ages ;  f/a!Iam,The  Middle  Ages;  Abdy,  Lectures 
on  Feudalism ;  Guizot,  History  of  Civilization. 


EMERTON  defines  feudalism  as  "an  organization  of 
society  based  upon  the  absence  of  a  strong  controlling 
power  at  the  center  of  the  State."  J  It  marks  a  step  in  the 
reorganization  of  society  which  was  slowly  going  forward 
during  the  Middle  Ages.  It  was  an  element  in  the  move- 
ment toward  freedom,  in  which  men  of  large  landed  pos- 
sessions gained  the  allegiance  of  vassals  by  gifts  of  land, 
in  return  for  which  the  latter  bound  themselves  to  defend 
the  former  in  case  of  attack.  "The  tie  by  which  the 
higher  freeman  bound  the  lower  one  to  himself  was  ordi- 
narily a  gift  of  the  use  of  a  certain  tract  of  land,  together 
with  more  or  less  extensive  rights  of  jurisdiction  over  the 
dwellers  thereon.  By  means  of  this  gift  he  secured  the 
service  of  the  lesser  man  in  war,  and  as  war  was  the  nor- 
mal condition  of  things,  such  service  was  the  most  valua- 
ble payment  he  could  receive."2 

While  it  is  true  that  the  feudal  lords  were  in  many  cases 
little  else  than  robber  chieftains,  especially  in  the  earlier 
history  of  the  system,  it  would  be  false  to  history  to 
picture  them  in  general  as  being  of  that  character.  The 

1  "  Mediaeval  Europe,"  p.  478.  2  Ibid.,  p.  480. 

136 


FEUDAL  EDUCATION"  137 

knights  were  chivalrous  in  battle,  ever  ready  to  fight  for 
their  religion,  as  shown  in  the  crusades,  to  defend  the 
weak,  to  show  greatest  respect  for  woman,  and  to  main- 
tain freedom.  Fortified  in  an  impregnable  castle  on 
some  eminence,  with  his  loyal  retainers  about  him,  the 
feudal  baron  was  able  to  defy  kings.  The  system  marks  a 
stage  in  the  development  of  civilization,  and  when  feudal- 
ism fell  into  decline  its  purpose  had  been  fulfilled. 

With  such  an  independent  manner  of  living,  and  such 
ideas  of  their  own  rights,  it  is  not  strange  that  the  knights 
had  a  form  of  education  peculiar  to  themselves,  and  this 
education  is  full  of  interest  to  the  student.  There  .was 
little  in  the  schooling  of  the  monasteries  that  could  appeal 
to  them,  and  their  ideas  of  manhood  were  very  different 
from  those  of  the  ecclesiastics.  Prowess  in  the  use  of 
arms,  skill  in  horsemanship,  acquaintance  with  the  chival- 
ric  forms  of  politeness  and  with  knightly  manners,  were  of 
far  more  importance  to  them  than  ability  to  read  and  write. 
Indeed,  they  despised  book-learning  as  something  beneath 
their  own  dignity,  however  suitable  it  might  be  for  their 
vassals.  In  such  a  school  as  this  Charlemagne  grew  up. 
It  was  a  school  of  action  rather  than  of  thought;  a  school 
which  looked  to  the  present  rather  than  the  future. 

The  education  of  the  knights  was  in  striking  contrast 
with  the  prevailing  modes.  Instead  of  the  seven  liberal 
arts,  the  seven  perfections  of  the  knight  were  taught, — 
horsemanship,  swimming,  use  of  bow  and  arrow,  swords- 
manship, hunting,  chess-playing,  and  verse-making.  Their 
purpose  was  to  prepare  for  the  activities  of  the  life  in 
which  their  lot  was  cast ;  that  of  the  monasteries  was  to 
preserve  learning  to  fit  men  for  the  duties  of  the  Church, 
and  to  prepare  them  for  the  life  to  come.  It  must  not 
be  inferred,  however,  that  the  knight  was  unmindful  of 


138  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

religion,  for  he  was  inducted  into  knighthood  by  most 
solemn  religious  ceremonies  and  vows. 

The  education  of  the  knight  was  divided  into  three 
periods. 

First  Period.  —  The  first  seven  years  of  the  boy's  life 
were  spent  in  the  home  under  the  mother's  careful  direc- 
tion. Obedience,  politeness,  and  respect  for  older  persons 
were  inculcated,  and  stress  was  also  laid  upon  religious 
training.  By  the  development  of  strong  and  healthy 
bodies  the  boys  were  well  prepared  for  the  later  educa- 
tion upon  which  they  entered  after  the  seventh  year. 

Second  Period.  —  After  the  seventh  year  the  boy  was 
generally  removed  from  home  to  the  care  of  some  friendly 
knight,  in  order  that  he  might  receive  a  stricter  training. 
Here  he  remained  till  his  fourteenth  year,  chiefly  under  the 
care  of  the  lady  whom  he  served  as  page.  He  was  taught 
music,  poetry,  chess,  and  some  simple  intellectual  studies, 
besides  the  duties  of  knighthood,  especially  in  relation  to 
the  treatment  of  women,  and  to  courtly  manners. 

Third  Period.  —  At  fourteen  the  boy  left  the  service  of 
his  lady  and  became  an  esquire  to  the  knight.  He  now 
attended  his  master  upon  the  chase,  at  tournaments,  and 
in  battle.  He  was  taught  all  the  arts  of  war,  of  riding, 
jousting,  fencing.  It  was  necessary  that  he  should  have 
a  watchful  eye  to  avert  danger,  protect  his  master,  and 
quickly  anticipate  his  every  wish.  The  service  of  this 
period  completed  his  education,  and  at  twenty-one  he  was 
knighted  with  imposing  ceremonies.  After  partaking  of 
the  sacrament,  he  took  vows  to  speak  the  truth,  defend  the 
weak,  honor  womanhood,  and  use  his  sword  for  the  defense 
of  Christianity. 

This  form  of  education  was  most  potent  in  preserving 
knighthood  for  several  centuries  and  was  a  powerful  factor 


FEUDAL  EDUCATION  139 

in  shaping  the  destinies  of  Europe.  It  was  faithfulness  to 
the  vow  to  defend  Christianity  that  led  finally  to  the  over- 
throw of  chivalry,  as  will  appear  in  the  study  of  the  crusades. 

Education  of  Women.  —  The  girls  remained  at  home  and 
were  taught  the  domestic  arts,  as  well  as  the  forms  of 
etiquette  which  were  practiced  in  this  chivalric  age,  and 
which  the  peculiar  homage  paid  to  woman  made  neces- 
sary. They  were  also  taught  reading  and  writing,  and 
were  expected  to  be  familiar  with  poetry.  Daughters  of 
the  better  families  were  sometimes  collected  in  some 
castle,  where  a  kind  of  school  was  organized,  in  which 
they  were  instructed  in  reading,  writing,  poetry,  singing, 
and  the  use  of  stringed  instruments,  religion,  and  some- 
times in  French  and  Latin.  Among  no  other  class  during 
the  Middle  Ages  was  such  great  attention  paid  to  the 
education  of  women.  It  was  the  duty  of  mothers  to  see 
that  their  daughters  were  carefully  prepared  to  sustain  the 
peculiar  dignity  of  feudal  womanhood. 

Criticism  of  Feudal  Education.  —  i .  It  honored  woman 
and  gave  her  the  highest  position  afforded  by  any  system 
during  the  Middle  Ages. 

2.  It  gave  the  world  a  splendid  example   of  chivalry, 
teaching  manliness,  courage,  devotion  to  the  right  as  it  was 
understood,  and  the  espousal  of  the  cause  of  the  weak. 

3.  It  contributed  to  literature  through  the  compositions 
of  the  Minnesingers. 

4.  It  counteracted  the  ascetic   tendencies   of   the   mo- 
nastics  by   encouraging   an  active  participation   in   life's 
affairs. 

5.  It  restricted  its  advantages  to  the  privileged  class. 

6.  It  despised  intellectual  training,  while  laying  great 
stress  upon  physical  prowess. 

7.  It  lacked  the  elements  of  progress. 


CHAPTER   XXIII 

THE   CRUSADES   AS   AN  EDUCATIONAL   MOVEMENT 

Literature.  —  Michaud,  The  Crusades  ;  Siubbs,  Mediaeval  and  Modern 
History ;  Mombert,  Great  Lives  (see  Godfrey)  ;  Myers,  Mediaeval  and 
Modern  History ;  Guizot,  History  of  Civilization  ;  Lord,  Beacon  Lights  ; 
Archer  and  Kingsford,  The  Crusaders;  White,  Eighteen  Christian 
Centuries ;  Andrews,  Institutes  of  General  History ;  Ridpath,  Library 
of  Universal  History  (article  on  the  Crusades) . 


AMONG  the  most  remarkable  movements  that  took  place 
during  the  Middle  Ages  were  the  crusades.  The  Saracens 
had  overrun  and  conquered  the  Holy  Land,  and  the  Chris- 
tian nations  of  the  west  attempted  to  recover  from  the 
hands  of  the  infidels  the  soil  made  sacred  by  the  life  and 
death  of  Christ.  For  a  long  time  the  pilgrims  who  made 
journeys  to  the  tomb  of  the  Savior  were  undisturbed,  as 
their  pilgrimages  were  a  source  of  profit  to  the  Saracens. 
But  when  the  Turks  gained  possession  of  Jerusalem,  they 
began  to  persecute  both  the  native  Christians  and  those 
who  came  from  abroad.  Peter  the  Hermit,  who  had  suf- 
fered from  these  cruelties  at  Jerusalem,  returned  to  Europe, 
and  by  his  crude  eloquence  and  earnestness  stirred  the 
people  almost  to  a  frenzy.  Obtaining  the  sanction  of  the 
Pope,  he  gathered  an  immense  crowd  of  men,  women,  and 
children,  and  started  for  the  Holy  Land. 

They  encountered  great  hardships,  many  died  of  hun- 
ger, disease,  and  the  hostility  of  the  people  through  whose 
countries  they  passed,  and  the  remnant  who  reached  the 
Bosporus,  were  totally  destroyed  by  Turkish  soldiers. 

140 


CRUSADES  AS  AN  EDUCATIONAL  MOVEMENT    141 

The  first  successful  crusade  was  organized  by  the  feudal 
lords,  who  gathered  an  army  of  six  hundred  thousand  men 
under  the  leadership  of  Godfrey  of  Bouillon.  They  had 
connected  with  their  army  one  hundred  thousand  splendidly 
mounted  men.  After  untold  losses  and  horrors,  which  re- 
duced their  forces  to  sixty  thousand  men,  they  succeeded 
in  taking  Jerusalem.  They  established  a  Latin  kingdom 
with  Godfrey  at  the  head,  and  thus  accomplished  the  pur- 
pose for  which  they  had  set  out.  This  crusade  lasted  from 
1096  to  1099. 

For  about  fifty  years  the  Latin  kingdom  held  its  own ; 
but  it  was  constantly  harassed  by  the  Mohammedans, 
until  it  became  necessary  to  organize  a  second  crusade. 
The  leaders  in  this  were  Conrad  III.  of  Germany  and 
Louis  VII.  of  France.  Jealousies  soon  arose  between  the 
rival  leaders,  who  cared  more  for  personal  glory  than  for 
the  purpose  of  the  crusade.  As  a  result,  only  a  small  por- 
tion of  the  three  hundred  thousand  soldiers  ever  reached 
the  Holy  Land;  and  this  crusade,  which  lasted  from  1147 
to  1 1 49, 'resulted  in  failure. 

Forty  years  later  Saladin,  a  Mohammedan  ruler,  having 
captured  Jerusalem,  a  third  crusade  was  organized.  This 
was  led  by  Richard  the  Lion-Hearted  of  England,  Frederick 
Barbarossa  of  Germany,  and  Philip  Augustus  of  France. 
Barbarossa  went  overland,  but  Richard  and  Philip,  profit- 
ing by  past  experiences,  made  the  journey  by  water,  thus 
accomplishing  it  with  greater  ease  and  fewer  losses.  The 
rivalries  between  the  different  nationalities  engaged  pre- 
vented successful  warfare  ;  but  a  truce  was  made  with  the 
humane  Saladin,1  whereby  he  guaranteed  protection  to  the 
Christians,  and  thus  the  crusade  came  to  an  end.  This 
crusade  lasted  from  1189  to  1192. 

1  See  Lessing's  "  Nathan  der  Weise." 


142  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

Other  crusades  followed  from  time  to  time  for  several 
centuries,  with  but  little  advantage  gained  over  the  condi- 
tions granted  by  Saladin. 

Results  of  the  Crusades. — This,  in  brief,  is  a  historical 
account  of  the  crusades.1  It  remains  for  us  to  note  their 
educational  value. 

1.  They  drew  various  nations  together  by  one  common 
purpose. 

2.  They  increased  the  knowledge  of  the  manners,  cus- 
toms, culture,  products,  and  civilization  of  the  East. 

3.  They  stirred   up   commerce,  especially  that   of   the 
Mediterranean,  making  Venice  and  Genoa  great  commer- 
cial centers. 

4.  They  broke  up  the  power  of  feudalism.     Lord  and 
vassal  together  entered   upon  enterprises  of  danger  and 
suffering,  which  were  great  levelers  of  class  distinction. 
In  the  enthusiasm  of  the  holy  cause,  many  feudal  lords 
disposed  of  all  their  worldly  possessions,  and  became  as 
poor  as  their  vassals.     This  broke  up  the  feudal  estates. 

5.  They  widened  the  horizon  of  thought,  made  Euro- 
peans more  liberal,  and  prepared  the  way  for  an  intel- 
lectual and  religious  revival. 

6.  They  emancipated  philosophy  from  theology.     As  a 
result  of  movements  inaugurated  by  the  crusades,  the  uni- 
versity of  Paris  established  the  faculty  of  philosophy  sepa- 
rate from  that  of  theology. 

7.  G.  W.  Cox  says,  "  By  rolling  back  the  tide  of  Moham- 
medan conquest  from  Constantinople  for  upward  of  four 
centuries  they  probably  saved  Europe   from  horrors  the 
recital  of  which  might  even  now  make  one's  ears  tingle." 

1  It  would  be  impossible  to  give  a  full  historical  account  of  the  crusades  in  a 
work  of  this  kind.  The  reader  is  referred  to  any  standard  work  on  that  subject. 


CHAPTER  XXIV 

THE  RISE  OF  THE  UNIVERSITIES 

Literature.  —  Laurie,  Rise  of  the  Universities  ;  Hallam,  Middle  Ages  ; 
Guisot,  History  of  Civilization ;  Paulsen,  The  German  Universities ; 
Hurst,  Life  and  Literature  in  the  Fatherland ;  Brother  Azarias,  Essays 
Educational. 

WE  have  seen  that  the  Church  had  almost  entire  con- 
trol of  education  during  the  Middle  Ages.  Through  her 
influence  schools  were  established  and  maintained,  learn- 
ing was  preserved,  and  the  interests  of  civilization  were 
promoted.  She  was  also  influential  in  the  founding  of 
universities,  though  not  to  her  alone  were  these  institu- 
tions due.  Laurie  says :  — 

"  Now  looking  first  to  the  germ  out  of  which  the 
universities  grew,  I  think  we  must  say  that  the  universi- 
ties may  be  regarded  as  a  natural  development  of  the 
cathedral  1  and  monastery  schools ;  but  if  we  seek  for  an 
external  motive  force  urging  men  to  undertake  the  more 
profound  and  independent  study  of  the  liberal  arts,  we 

1  The  cathedral  schools  were  institutions  connected  with  each  cathedral  for 
the  purpose  of  training  priests  for  their  sacred  office,  but  they  were  not  limited 
entirely  to  priests.  Instructions  in  the  seven  liberal  arts  was  imparted,  and 
also  in  religion.  Parochial  schools  were  established  in  many  places  for  the 
purpose  of  training  children  in  the  doctrines  of  the  Church.  Thus,  as  early 
as  the  ninth  century,  the  Church  sought  to  extend  the  benefits  of  education  to 
the  people  as  well  as  to  the  priesthood.  While  the  parochial  schools  were 
limited  in  their  instruction,  somewhat  after  the  manner  of  the  early  catechu- 
men schools,  the  changed  conditions  of  Christianity  permitted  a  much  broader 
training  than  formerly. 


144  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

can  find  it  only  in  the  Saracenic  schools  of  Bagdad,  Baby- 
lon, Alexandria,  and  Cordova.  The  Saracens  were  neces- 
sarily brought  into  contact  with  Greek  literature,  just 
when  the  western  Church  was  drifting  away  from  it ;  and 
by  their  translations  of  Hippocrates,  Galen,  Aristotle,  and 
other  Greek  classics,  they  restored  what  may  be  quite 
accurately  called  the  'university  life'  of  the  Greeks." 

The  first  universities,  however,  can  hardly  be  said  to 
have  been  inspired  by  the  influence  of  the  Church.  Nor 
did  the  State  assist  in  their  establishment,  though  it  after- 
ward sanctioned  them,  and  conferred  upon  them  their 
peculiar  privileges.  The  first  universities  grew  out  of 
organizations  of  scholars  and  students  who  joined  them- 
selves together  for  the  purpose  of  study  and  investigation. 
The  oldest  institution  of  this  kind  was  that  of  Salerno,  Italy, 
which  Laurie  says  was  a  "public  school  from  A.D.  1060, 
and  a  privileged  school  from  iioo."  It  taught  medi- 
cine only,  and  was  established  by  a  converted  Jew.  It 
was  entirely  independent  of  both  Church  and  State,  and 
attracted  students  from  many  countries. 

The  next  university  was  that  of  Bologna,  Italy.  It  also 
had  only  one  faculty,  that  of  law.  In  1158  Frederick  I. 
recognized  the  institution  by  giving  it  certain  privileges. 
It  awakened  widespread  interest  throughout  Europe,  so 
that  by  the  end  of  the  twelfth  century  it  is  estimated  that 
twelve  thousand  students  had  flocked  to  Bologna,  most  of 
them  from  foreign  lands.  This  is  an  indication  that  the 
revival  of  learning  was  quite  general  throughout  the 
world. 

But  the  greatest  university  of  the  Middle  Ages  was  that 
of  Paris,  which  attracted  at  least  twenty  thousand  stu- 
dents. The  university  of  Paris  was  evolved  from  a  cathedral 
school,  and  it  always  retained  a  strong  theological  ten- 


THE  RISE  OF  THE   UNIVERSITIES  145 

dency.  Philip  Augustus  gave  it  privileges  as  a  corpora- 
tion, and  Pope  Innocent  III.  recognized  it  as  a  high  school 
of  theology.  The  course  of  study  was  by  no  means  narrow, 
as  it  was  held  that  broad  knowledge  was  essential  as  a 
preparation  for  theological  study.  Consequently  it  was 
not  long  before  a  philosophical  faculty1  —  the  first  in  his- 
tory —  was  added  as  separate  from  the  theological  faculty. 
The  greatest  name  connected  with  the  university  of  Paris 
is  that  of  Abelard.  Early  in  the  twelfth  century  he  at- 
tracted great  numbers  of  students,  and  it  was  his  person- 
ality that  made  Paris  the  greatest  university  of  the  Middle 
Ages. 

The  university  of  Oxford.  England,  was  founded  in  I I4O,2 
that  of  Cambridge  in  1200.  The  oldest  German  univer- 
sity is  Prague,  founded  in  1348.  Then  follow:  Vienna, 
1365;  Heidelberg,  1386;  Cologne,3  1388;  Erfurt,3  1392; 
Wiirzburg,  1403;  Leipsic,  1409;  Rostock,  1419;  Greifs- 
wald,  1456;  Freiburg-im-Breisgau,  1457;  Trier,  1472; 
Tubingen,  1477;  and  Mainz,  1477.  In  France,  after 
Paris,  Toulouse,  1233;  Orleans,  Cahors,  Caen,  Poitiers, 
Nantes,  and  others  during  the  fourteenth  century.  In  the 
same  century  at  Lund  and  Upsala  in  Sweden,  Christiania 
in  Norway,  and  Copenhagen  in  Denmark.  Italy,  Spain, 
England,  Ireland,  and  Scotland  also  felt  this  wonderful 
impulse.  These  universities  were  usually  modeled  after 
that  of  Paris. 

The  European  universities  were  early  granted  certain 

JThe  complete  university  has  four  faculties,  which  embrace  all  human 
knowledge.  The  historical  order  of  precedence  is  as  follows  :  Theology 
(1259-60),  Law  (1271),  Medicine  (1274),  and  Arts  or  Philosophy  (1281). 
The  last  includes  all  subjects  not  embraced  in  the  first  three.  Thus  all 
branches  of  science,  history,  language,  mathematics,  etc.,  belong  to  the 
"  philosophical "  faculty. 

2  Laurie,  "  Rise  of  the  Universities."  8  No  longer  in  existence. 

HIST.   OF  ED. —  10 


146  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

privileges,  many  of  which  are  accorded  to  this  day.  In- 
deed, some  of  these  privileges  were  assumed  and  allowed 
before  the  institutions  had  official  recognition  by  charter. 
These  educational  associations  acquired  so  much  influence 
and  power  that  princes  and  popes  vied  with  each  other  to 
gain  favor  with  them  by  granting  them  special  privileges. 
One  of  the  most  important  of  these  is  that  the  government 
of  the  student  body  rests  with  the  university  faculty,  both 
as  to  their  life  in  connection  with  the  university,  and  also 
outside  of  it.  Thus  to  this  day  if  a  student  is  arrested  by 
the  police,  his  case  is  turned  over  to  the  authorities  of  the 
university  for  trial  and  punishment.  This  was  an  impor- 
tant concession  largely  growing  out  of  the  fact  that  a  great 
many  of  the  students  were  citizens  of  other  countries  than 
that  in  which  the  university  was  located.  It  will  readily 
appear  that  this  privilege  alone  would  have  a  tendency  to 
create  a  world  for  university  students  and  professors  apart 
from  that  of  the  citizens.  Doubtless  the  moral  tone  among 
the  former  was  often  very  low.  Students  took  advantage 
of  the  situation  created  by  their  peculiar  privileges,  and 
disregarded  laws  which  the  citizens  were  obliged  to  obey. 
Conflicts  between  these  two  classes,  therefore,  were  fre- 
quent and  bitter. 

The  universities  stimulated  a  desire  for  learning,  created 
a  respect  for  it,  and  began  a  movement  toward  free  inves- 
tigation, and  for  the  promulgation  of  liberal  ideas,  which 
gains  strength  with  each  decade  of  the  world's  history. 
They  have  greatly  contributed  to  the  growth  of  knowledge, 
to  the  advancement  of  science,  and  to  the  elevation  of 
mankind. 


CHAPTER   XXV 

MOHAMMEDAN  EDUCATION 

Literature.  —  Warner,  Library  of  the  World's  Best  Literature  (see 
article  on  the  Koran)  ;  Johonnot,  Geographical  Reader  ;  Lane-Poole, 
Story  of  the  Moors  in  Spain  ;  Lord,  Beacon  Lights  of  History  ;  Thal- 
heimer,  Mediaeval  and  Modern  History  ;  Stille,  Studies  in  Mediaeval 
History :  Irving,  Mahomet  and  his  Successors ;  Church,  The  Begin- 
nings of  the  Middle  Ages ;  Andrews,  Institutes  of  General  History ; 
White,  Eighteen  Christian  Centuries;  Myers,  Mediaeval  and  Modern 
History ;  Mombert,  Great  Lives  j  Clarke,  Ten  Great  Religions ;  Ferris, 
Great  Leaders ;  Laurie,  Rise  of  the  Universities ;  Walker,  John  Bris- 
ben,  The  Building  of  an  Empire  ("Cosmopolitan,"  Feb. -Sept.,  1899)  ; 
"North  American  Review,1'  Vol.  171,  p.  754. 


WE  have  thus  far  described  the  work  of  Christian  edu- 
cation. Parallel  with  this  and  almost  entirely  independent 
of  it  grew  the  educational  work  of  the  Moslems.  This  was 
a  very  important  movement  most  valuable  to  civilization. 

History  of  Mohammedanism.  —  Mohammedanism  dates 
from  the  time  of  the  Hegira,  or  flight  of  Mohammed  from 
Mecca,  A.D.  622.  From  this  date  Moslems  reckon  their  time, 
as  the  Christian  world  reckons  from  the  birth  of  Christ. 
Mohammed  first  appeared  as  prophet  when  forty  years  of 
age.  The  religion  of  the  Arabs  was  a  most  degraded  one, 
and  there  was  great  need  of  the  reformation  which  Moham- 
med undertook.  The  prophet  was  not  well  received  at  first, 
and,  being  obliged  to  flee  from  Mecca,  he  retired  to  a  cave 
at  Medina,  where  he  meditated  and  studied.  It  was  during 
this  retirement  that  he  wrote  the  Koran,  the  Bible  of 
the  Mohammedans.  He  claimed  that  the  angel  Gabriel 
appeared  to  him,  giving  him  a  new  revelation,  which  was 


148  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

more  significant  than  that  of  the  Christians.  Indeed,  these 
so-called  revelations  were  strangely  suited  to  the  varying 
ambition  of  the  founder  of  this  religion.  The  Koran 
teaches  that  as  Jesus  was  greater  than  Moses,  so  Moham- 
med was  greater  than  Jesus. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  the  new  religion  was  an  improve- 
ment upon  the  degraded  form  of  worship  that  Mohammed 
found  among  the  Arabs,  or  that  in  the  beginning  of  his 
activity  he  did  much  to  purify  and  elevate  his  people. 
But  as  he  gained  great  numbers  of  adherents,*  and  as  he 
acquired  power,  Mohammed  became  a  warrior,  and  at- 
tempted by  the  sword  to  compel  belief  in  his  doctrines. 
Moslemism  met  with  such  wonderful  success  that  already, 
during  the  life  of  Mohammed,  all  Arabia  was  conquered 
to  this  belief,  while  his  successors  spread  his  teachings 
into  northern  Africa,  western  Asia,  Spain,  and  Turkey. 
They  carried  their  triumphant  arms  into  France,  until 
they  were  checked  by  Charles  Martel;  they  overran 
Austria  and  threatened  the  complete  subjugation  of 
southeastern  Europe,  until  John  Sobieski  dealt  them  a 
crushing  blow  before  the  gates  of  Vienna,  and  forever 
destroyed  their  ambition  for  northern  conquest ;  they  occu- 
pied Spain  for  seven  hundred  years,  and  still  retain  Turkey 
as  their  sole  European  possession ;  they  have  extended 
their  power  over  many  parts  of  Asia  and  Africa,  until  now 
they  number  about  two  hundred  million  souls. 

The  five  chief  Moslem  precepts  are :  — 

1.  Confession  of  the  unity  of  God.     "  There  is  one  God, 
and  Mohammed  is  his  prophet." 

2.  Stated  prayer. 

3.  Almsgiving. 

4.  The  fast  of  Ramadan,  the  ninth  month  of  the  Mo- 
hammedan year. 


MOHAMMEDAN  EDUCATION  149 

5.  Observance  of  the  festival  of  Mecca.  Every  Moslem 
is  expected  to  make  a  pilgrimage  to  Mecca  at  least  once  in 
his  lifetime. 

Education. — When  Mohammedanism  became  secure  in 
its  power,  it  turned  its  attention  to  education.  The  suc- 
cessors of  Mohammed  were  called  caliphs,  and  the  caliphs 
of  Bagdad  and  Cordova  rivaled  each  other  in  fostering 
learning.  Schools  were  established  in  all  large  Moslem 
cities  and  in  many  smaller  towns.  Their  scholars  trans- 
lated the  works  of  Aristotle  and  other  Greek  authors. 
They  taught  mathematics,  astronomy,  philosophy,  and 
grammar.  They  originated  the  science  of  chemistry,  and 
made  great  advances  in  the  study  of  algebra  and  trigonome- 
try. They  also  measured  the  earth,  and  made  catalogues 
of  the  stars.  Every  branch  of  knowledge  was  studied,  and 
students  were  attracted  from  all  parts  of  Europe  to  their 
schools,  especially  to  Cordova. 

Students  lived  in  colleges  with  the  professors,  and  there 
was  an  atmosphere  of  culture  and  investigation  not  equaled 
in  any  of  the  Christian  universities  of  the  Middle  Ages. 

Spain  reached  the  summit  of  Moslem  education  during 
the  reign  of  King  Hakem  III.  (961-976).  This  king  fos- 
tered education,  being  himself  a  man  of  learning.  He 
had  a  private  library  of  six  hundred  thousand  volumes. 

Education  was  not  confined  simply  to  the  higher  schools 
and  universities.  There  were  also  a  great  many  elementary 
schools.  The  first  work  of  these  was  to  teach  the  Koran, 
which  was  used  as  a  reading  book.  The  Koran  gives  us 
the  most  perfect  picture  of  the  oriental  mind  that  we 
possess.  Children  of  the  poor  attended  school  from  their 
fifth  till  their  eighth  year,  when  they  were  allowed  to  go 
to  service.  Children  of  the  rich  entered  school  at  their 
fifth  year  and  remained  till  their  fourteenth  or  fifteenth 


150  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

year.  After  that,  if  parents  could  afford  it,  boys  traveled 
until  their  twentieth  year,  under  care  of  a  tutor.  This 
completed  their  education.  Any  person  could  teach  who 
chose  to  do  so,  no  authority  fixing  the  qualifications  of 
teachers. 

The  Mohammedan  schools  began  to  decline  in  the 
eleventh  century.  At  the  present  time,  but  little  attention 
is  paid  to  education  in  any  of  the  countries  under  the  sway 
of  Islam. 


GENERAL  SUMMARY  OF  EDUCATIONAL  PROGRESS  DURING 
THE  MIDDLE  AGES 

1.  Paganism  gave  way  to  Christianity,  and  the  benign 
influence   of   the   latter   began  to  be   felt  in  the    recog- 
nition of  the  importance  of  the  individual. 

2.  The  Church  undertook  the  direction  of  education, 
which,    though    necessarily    limited    chiefly   to    the    ec- 
clesiastics, had  also  a  great   influence  upon  the  masses 
at  large. 

3.  The    Church    Fathers    were    the    leaders   in   intel- 
lectual as  well  as  in  spiritual  matters,  while  monks  and 
priests  were  the  principal  teachers. 

4.  The   monasteries   were   the   centers   of   educational 
activity,  both  in  fostering  scholarship  and  in  preserving 
classic  literature. 

5.  Secular    courses    of    study    were    established,    the 
most  important  being  the  "seven  liberal  arts." 

6.  Education   was    based   on   authority,    and    free   in- 
vestigation found  but  little  encouragement,  except  among 
the  scholastics. 

7.  The  State  assumed  no  part  in  the  training  of   the 
young.    Charlemagne's  educational  work  is  an  exception 


MOHAMMEDAN  EDUCATION  I  5  I 

to  this  rule.  He  asserted  the  prerogative  of  the  State 
to  control  education,  recognized  the  necessity  of  uni- 
versal education,  and  the  principle  of  compulsory  at- 
tendance. 

8.  The   crusades   checked   the   growth  of   feudalism, 
aroused  the  intellectual  as  well  as  the  spiritual  energies 
of  the  people,  led  to  a  broader  conception  of  man's  duty 
to    his    fellow-man,    and  prepared   the  way    for    greater 
religious  and  political  freedom. 

9.  As  an  important  result  of   the  stimulated  educa- 
tional    activity,    both    among    Christians    and     Moham- 
medans, many  universities  were  founded. 

10.  "The  Middle  Ages,"  says  Emerson,  "gave  us  decimal 
numbers,  gunpowder,  glass,  chemistry,  and  gothic  architec- 
ture, and  their  paintings  are  the  delight  and  tuition  of  our 
age."1 

1  Emerson,  Progress  of  Culture  in  "  Letters  and  Social  Aims,"  p.  204. 
Boston,  1895. 


CHAPTER  XXVI 

THE  RENAISSANCE 

Literature.  —  Williams,  History  of  Modern  Education ;  Quick, 
Educational  Reformers ;  Bryce,  The  Holy  Roman  Empire ;  Andrews, 
Institutes  of  General  History ;  Fisher,  History  of  the  Reformation ; 
Reeve,  Petrarch ;  Symonds,  Renaissance  in  Italy ;  Seebohm,  Era  of 
Protestant  Revolution ;  Spofford,  Library  of  Historical  Characters ; 
Hegel,  Philosophy  of  History ;  Draper,  Intellectual  Development  of 
Europe ;  Azarias,  Philosophy  of  Literature  ;  Schivickerath,  Jesuit  Edu- 
cation; Dr.  Ludwig  Pastor,  History  of  the  Popes,  Vol.  I,  p.  54,  etc. 


As  the  fifteenth  century  drew  to  a  close  there  were 
unmistakable  evidences  of  the  dawn  of  a  better  day,  and 
the  long  period  known  as  the  "  Dark  Ages "  was  to 
be  succeeded  by  a  brighter  and  more  glorious  era.  The 
sway  of  the  Church  over  the  consciences,  lives,  and 
material  interests  of  men  was  disputed ;  the  feudal 
system  had  begun  to  disintegrate ;  the  world  had  been 
aroused  to  new  enterprise  by  the  discovery  and  explora- 
tion of  distant  continents,  by  the  invention  of  paper, 
the  printing  press,  gunpowder,  and  the  mariner's  com- 
pass; the  Ptolemaic  system  of  astronomy  had  been 
superseded  by  that  of  Copernicus'  the  great  empires 
of  the  Middle  Ages  had  disappeared,  and  upon  their  ruins 
had  been  constructed  smaller  nationalities  which  spoke 
a  language  of  their  own.  The  period  in  which  these 
remarkable  changes  were  taking  place  is  known  as 

152 


THE  RENAISSANCE  153 

that  of  the  Renaissance.  It  cannot  be  confined  to  definite 
chronological  limits,  but  is  the  period  of  transition  from 
one  historical  stage  to  another,  in  which  there  was  a 
"  gradual  metamorphosis  of  the  intellectual  and  moral 
state  of  Europe."  The  Renaissance  must  be  viewed 
as  "an  internal  process  whereby  spiritual  energies  latent 
in  the  Middle  Ages  were  developed  into  actuality  and 
formed  a  mental  habit  for  the  modern  world."  It  pre- 
pared the  way  for  the  Reformation,  and  introduced  the 
era  of  wonderful  progress  upon  which  modern  civiliza- 
tion has  entered.  It  was  the  new  birth,  the  regeneration 
(renascence)  of  the  world. 

A  most  important  instrumentality  for  carrying  for- 
ward the  great  work  thus  inaugurated  was  the  Teutonic 
race.  The  despised  northern  barbarians,  who  had  con- 
quered Rome,  had  become  civilized  and  Christianized, 
and  were  found  to  possess  the  sterling  qualities  which 
made  them  capable  of  bearing  the  great  responsibilities  of 
progressive  civilization.  The  proud  Roman  Empire  had  at 
last  succumbed  to  its  internal  weaknesses  and  vices,  and 
had  disappeared  forever  from  the  face  of  the  earth. 

With  the  greater  enlightenment  of  men  had  come  once 
more  an  appreciation  of  the  value  of  the  classic  languages, 
and  Greek,  the  language  of  the  Eastern  Empire,  was  no 
longer  regarded  with  antipathy.  The  revival  of  learning, 
which  had  its  inception  in  Italy  and  spread  northward, 
found  its  most  important  expression  in  the  new  interest 
awakened  in  the  classic  languages.  It  is  in  this,  the 
so-called  humanistic  phase  of  the  Renaissance,  that  the 
student  of  education  is  chiefly  interested.  To  this  we  turn 
our  attention. 

We  have  already  alluded  to  the  social  conditions,  the  in- 
ventions, and  discoveries,  which  prepared  the  way  for  the 


154  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

revival  of  learning.  New  and  powerful  impulses  were 
shaping  the  progress  of  the  world,  and  the  leaders  of  the 
humanistic  movement  were  not  slow  to  utilize  the  instru- 
ments thus  opportunely  furnished  them.  Chief  among 
these  was  the  art  of  printing,  which  enabled  them  to  mul- 
tiply and  distribute  copies  of  the  classics,  that  had  been 
consigned  to  comparative  oblivion. 

Another  important  element  must  be  considered  if  we  are 
to  understand  this  revival.  We  have  seen  that  during  the 
Middle  Ages  the  ecclesiastics  largely  shaped  the  intellec- 
tual activity  of  Europe,  that  mystery  was  made  of  science, 
and  that  the  authority  of  the  Church  was  supreme  on  all 
questions  of  education  as  well  as  of  religion.  A  new  and 
vital  doctrine  was  taught  which  had  much  to  do  with  the 
intellectual  and  spiritual  emancipation  of  man.  This  new 
doctrine  may  be  stated  as  follows  :  — 

Man  is  a  rational,  volitional,  self-conscious  being,  born  with 
capabilities  and  rights  to  enjoy  whatever  good  the  world 
offers. 

This  doctrine,  it  will  readily  appear,  is  capable  of  being 
perverted  to  an  excuse  for  unbridled  license,  as  was  done 
by  the  Italians ;  or,  rightly  interpreted,  of  being  productive 
of  great  good,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Germans. 
.  Another  new  doctrine  taught  was  that  there  was  good- 
ness in  man  and  his  works  even  previous  to  the  Christian 
era,  and  that  a  study  of  the  writings  of  all  who  have  con- 
tributed to  human  progress  is  essential  to  culture,  and  of 
value  to  mankind.  This  was  an  argument  for  the  revival 
of  the  study  of  Greek,  which  had  for  centuries  been  neg- 
lected. Indeed,  Gibbon  tells  us  that  in  the  time  of  Pe- 
trarch, "  No  more  than  ten  votaries  of  Homer  could  be 
enumerated  in  all  Italy." 

Again,  it  was  held  that  the  gates  of  learning  must  be 


THE  RENAISSANCE  155 

opened  to  all  and  not  limited  to  the  clergy,  the  recluse, 
and  the  sage.  Intellectual  culture  must  be  offered  to  all 
men,  to  make  them  better  and  happier,  and  is  not  to  be 
confined  to  the  few  for  the  purpose  of  increasing  their 
power  and  widening  the  breach  between  the  classes.  The 
Renaissance  made  learning  popular,  it  created  a  passion 
for  culture,  it  aroused  and  stimulated  widespread  desire 
for  greater  enlightenment.  Some  of  the  leaders  in  the 
movement,  however,  merited  opposition  because  of  their 
efforts  to  introduce  not  only  the  beauties  of  pagan  art  and 
literature,  but  likewise  some  of  their  licentiousness. 

We  may  now  turn  our  attention  to  a  more  detailed 
history  of  this  revival  and  its  effect  upon  different  peoples, 
and  to  a  brief  study  of  some  of  its  great  leaders. 

Humanism  in  Italy.  —  Italy  was  the  first  to  catch  the 
impulse  of  humanism.  Dante,  Petrarch,  and  Boccaccio 
in  the  fourteenth  century  inspired  men  with  their  new 
ideas,  and  set  in  motion  influences  which  were  attended 
with  results  often  far  from  good.  They  revived  the  study 
of  Latin  and  Greek  classics,  extracted  manuscripts  from 
their  hidden  archives,  incited  in  society  a  passion  for 
learning,  and  created  a  popular  literature  in  their  own 
vernacular.  They  implanted  a  love  of  freedom  of  thought 
in  the  Italian  masses.  Their  enthusiasm  for  the  new 
learning  attracted  scholars  from  Germany,  France,  and 
other  countries,  who  spread  the  influence  in  their  own 
lands. 

The  effect  of  humanism  upon  the  Italian  mind  and 
life  was  pernicious  in  the  extreme.  It  led  to  infidelity, 
to  immorality,  and  to  a  return  to  many  pagan  prac- 
tices. This  was  owing  to  two  chief  causes.  First,  the 
evil  influence  of  many  leaders  of  the  Church,  and 
second,  the  passionate  nature  of  the  Italian  people.  Karl 


156  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

Schmidt  says,  "  Humanism,  but  not  morality,  ruled  in  the 
Vatican."  Brother  Azarias,  in  speaking  of  this  period, 
says : l  "  The  clergy  loved  their  own  ease  too  well ;  they 
were  too  great  pleasure-seekers  and  gold-coveters  to  attend 
to  their  flocks  with  that  pastoral  spirit  of  simplicity  and 
good  faith  that  is  to  be  witnessed  in  the  Church  to-day. 
The  bishops  were  no  better.  They  looked  for  emoluments 
and  court  favor.  Even  the  better  class  of  ecclesiastics 
gave  themselves  up  to  the  intellectual  luxury  of  admiring 
Plato  and  imitating  Cicero.  While  a  general  laxity  of 
morals  in  all  orders  of  religious  life  —  among  priest  and 
monk,  pope  and  cardinal  —  was  bringing  odium  on  the 
Church,  and  weakening  her  hold  upon  the  people  — 
especially  upon  the  Teutonic  races  —  the  seeds  of  re- 
generation were  germinating  in  her  own  body.  She  was 
even  then  the  mother  of  sanctity.  .  .  .  The  Catholic 
hierarchy  at  last  realized  that  with  themselves  should 
begin  the  reformation  they  would  see  established ;  they 
therefore  pronounced  the  most  withering  denunciations 
upon  the  clerical  and  religious  abuses  of  the  day." 

The  people  interpreted  the  teaching  of  Petrarch  that  the 
world  was  made  for  man's  enjoyment,  as  a  plea  for  license 
and  absence  of  restraint.  Even  monks  and  priests,  who 
had  been  held  to  the  rigid  life  of  the  cloister,  imbued  with 
this  teaching,  indulged  in  excesses  that  were  subversive  of 
both  morals  and  religion.2 

But  without  doubt  there  was  a  great  intellectual  move- 
ment in  Italy.  Draper  says,  "Between  1470  and  1500 
more  than  ten  thousand  editions  of  books  and  pamphlets 
were  printed,  and  a  majority  of  them  in  Italy,  demon- 
strating that  Italy  was  in  the  van  of  the  intellectual  move- 
ment." 

1  "  Philosophy  of  Literature,"  p.  123.  2  Ibid. 


THE  RENAISSANCE  157 

Humanism  in  Germany.  —  A  far  different  result  was 
attained  among  the  Teutonic  peoples.  The  best  students 
of  Germany  went  to  Italy,  and,  becoming  acquainted  with 
the  new  education,  returned  to  introduce  it  into  their  own 
universities.  Being  less  directly  under  the  influences  that 
obtained  in  Italy,  and  possessing  the  moral  stability  which 
had  brought  the  Teutonic  race  to  the  front,  the  Germans 
obtained  good  where  the  Italians  had  absorbed  evil.  The 
same  principle,  with  different  interpretation,  under  differ- 
ent conditions,  and  in  different  soil,  brought  forth  far  dif- 
ferent fruit.  Thus  Petrarch's  teaching  was  interpreted  to 
mean  that  the  good  things  of  earth  are  not  to  be  abused, 
and  that  man's  acquirements  are  to  be  consecrated  to  his 
self-development  and  to  the  glory  of  God. 

The  German  humanists  revived  the  study  of  the  classics, 
Greek,  Latin,  and  Hebrew,  until,  at  the  beginning  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  these  languages  were  taught  in  every 
German  university.  The  Bible  was  studied  in  the  original, 
and  classic  writings  were  redeemed  from  obscurity,  printed, 
and  given  to  the  world.  Heidelberg  and  Tubingen  became 
centers  of  the  humanistic  movement,  and  Agricola,  Reuch- 
lin,  and  Erasmus  were  the  great  leaders. 

Artisan  Schools. — During  the  I3th  and  I4th  centuries 
another  type  of  schools  flourished,  namely,  the  Burger  or 
Artisan  Schools,  whose  purpose,  contrary  to  that  of  the 
humanistic  influences,  was  to  prepare  men  for  practical 
and  useful  work,  and  to  fit  for  citizenship.  The  need  of 
these  schools  grew  out  of  the  changed  conditions  of  life, 
especially  the  growing  tendency  to  live  in  cities  and  to 
divide  labor  into  crafts.  They  were  supported  by  the  sec- 
ular 'authorities,  and  ultimately  they  came  to  exert  a  great 
influence  upon  city  governments,  particularly  those  of  the 
Hanseatic  league.  Many  of  the  teachers  were  priests, 


158  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

and  the  instruction  was  usually  given  in  the  mother 
tongue.  These  schools  flourished  in  Germany,  France, 
Italy,  Denmark,  and  other  countries,  and  they  doubtless 
furthered  the  idea  ,of  the  maintenance  of  education  at 
public  expense,  an  idea  that  has  come  to  have  universal 
acceptance. 

Summary  of  the  Influence  of  Humanism.  —  i.  It  laid 
the  foundation  for  future  liberty  of  thought  and  con- 
science. 

2.  It  revived  the  study  of  the  classic  languages,  and 
gave  them  a  place  in  education  which  they  still  hold. 

3.  It  utilized  the  art  of  printing  by  placing  the  works 
of  ancient  authors  in  form  to  be  used  by  the  world. 

4.  It  increased  the  number  of  students  in  the  universi- 
ties, and  stimulated  intelligence  among  the  masses. 

5.  It  changed  courses   of   study,   making   them   more 
practical. 

6.  It  exerted  an  influence  on  schools  of   all  kinds  by 
giving  better  preparation  to  teachers. 

7.  It   stimulated   all  forms  of    elevating  activity,  —  in 
art,  in  science,  in  exploration,  in  invention. 

8.  It   prepared   the  way  for   the   Reformation,  which 
broadened  and  perfected  the  work  thus  inaugurated. 


CHAPTER   XXVII 

HUMANISTIC  EDUCATORS 

Literature.  —  Spofford,  Library  of  Historical  Characters;  Symonds, 
Renaissance  in  Italy;  Reeve,  Petrarch;  Macaulay,  Essays;  Warner, 
Library  of  the  World's  Best  Literature  (see  articles  on  Dante,  Petrarch, 
and  Boccaccio)  ;  U'Aubigne',  History  of  the  Reformation  ;  Morris,  Era 
of  the  Protestant  Revolution ;  Leclerc,  Life  of  Erasmus  ;  Fisher,  History 
of  the  Reformation ;  Mrs.  Oliphant,  Dante ;  Azarias,  Philosophy  of 
Literature ;  Schwickerath,  Jesuit  Education. 


THE  mission  of  the  humanistic  leaders  was  to  "  awake 
the  dead,"  for  Greek  had  become  in  the  fullest  sense  a 
dead  language,  and  while  classic  Latin  was  still  read,  its 
spirit  was  not  comprehended  and  therefore  it  also  was 
practically  dead.  We  have  seen  that  the  Italians  were 
the  first  to  catch  the  inspiration  of  this  revival,  and  Ger- 
many, France,  Spain,  and  England  "were  invited  to  her 
feast."  The  great  leaders  of  Italy  were  Dante,  Petrarch, 
and  Boccaccio.  It  is  not  the  purpose  here  to  discuss 
these  men  in  all  of  their  intellectual  activities,  but  simply 
to  consider  the  part  of  their  work  that  had  a  bearing  on 
education. 

THE  ITALIAN  HUMANISTS 

DANTE   (1265-1321) 

Dante  was  born  and  educated  in  Florence.  He  was 
favored  with  a  devoted  teacher,  Brunetto  Latini,  who  was 
said  to  be  "  a  great  philosopher  and  a  consummate  mas- 
ter of  rhetoric,  not  only  knowing  how  to  speak  well,  but 

159 


160  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

to  write  well."  Under  him  Dante  became  familiar  with 
all  of  the  great  Latin  poets,  with  philosophy,  history,  and 
theology.  Dante  always  spoke  of  his  teacher  with  great 
affection.  Those  were  times  of  revolution  and  political 
disturbance,  and  Dante  was  readily  drawn  into  politics. 
This  caused  his  banishment  and  even  endangered  his  life. 
Dante's  greatest  work  is  the  "  Divine  Comedy,"  which 
has  made  his  name  immortal.  His  was  the  first  great 
name  in  literature  after  the  long  dark  period  of  the  Middle 
Ages.  It  is  said  of  him  that  "he  was  not  the  restorer  of 
classic  antiquity,  but  one  of  the  great  prophets  of  that 
restoration."  He  brought  the  Italian  language  into  use  in 
literature  and  gave  to  it  a  dignity  that  it  has  never  lost. 
Dante  prepared  the  way  for  the  humanistic  movement  and 
was  therefore  an  important  factor  in  this  great  revival. 

PETRARCH   f  1 304-1 374) 

The  father  of  Petrarch  was  an  eminent  jurist,  and  he 
desired  his  son  to  adopt  his  profession,  but  Petrarch  had 
neither  taste  nor  capacity  for  Roman  law.  He  was  deter- 
mined to  be  a  man  of  letters.  Like  Dante,  he  too  mixed 
in  politics,  and  several  important  diplomatic  positions  were 
given  to  him.  Though  he  succeeded  in  learning  a  little 
Greek  late  in  life,  Petrarch  was  not  a  Greek  scholar.  This 
did  not  hinder  him  from  being  a  warm  advocate  of  the 
claims  of  the  Greek  language  as  an  important  element  of  a 
liberal  education.  Although  he  possessed  a  manuscript  of 
Homer,  "  Homer  was  dumb  to  him,  or  rather  he  was  deaf 
to  Homer." 

Petrarch  was  the  real  founder  of  humanism.  Being 
enthusiastic  for  the  works  of  antiquity  himself,  he  inspired 
the  Italians  with  a  remarkable  zeal  in  the  pursuit  of  classic 
lore ;  nor  was  his  influence  confined  to  the  limits  of  his 


HUMANISTIC  EDUCATORS  l6l 

native  country.  He  was  the  first  to  make  a  collection  of 
classic  works,  and  to  bring  to  light  the  literary  treasures 
which  the  monasteries  had  so  carefully  preserved  for  cen- 
turies. He  inaugurated  that  great  movement  which  "  re- 
stored freedom,  self-consciousness,  and  the  faculty  of  prog- 
ress to  human  intellect."  He  recognized  that  the  most 
wonderful  thing  in  the  world  is  the  human  mind,  the 
emancipation  of  which  can  be  brought  about  only  through 
its  own  activity.  He  was  the  first  to  appreciate  the  impor- 
tance of  Greek  in  human  culture.  Unlike  Tertullian,  Je- 
rome, and  Augustine,  he  believed  that  classic  authors, 
together  with  the  Holy  Scriptures  and  the  writings  of  the 
Church  Fathers,  produce  the  broadest  intelligence.  All  of 
these  have  the  same  purpose,  and  all  are  necessary  to 
human  enlightenment.  Petrarch  broke  down  the  unfruit- 
ful methods  of  the  scholastics,  and  laid  the  foundations 
upon  which  modern  education  is  based  ;  namely,  intellectual 
freedom,  self-consciousness,  and  self-activity. 

BOCCACCIO  (1313-1375) 

The  third  of  the  great  Italian  leaders  in  the  humanistic 
movement  was  Boccaccio.  At  the  age  of  twenty-five, 
while  standing  at  the  grave  of  Vergil,  he  decided  to  devote 
himself  to  a  literary  career.  He  admired  the  great  work 
of  Petrarch,  and  was  proud  that,  "  at  his  own  expense,  he 
was  the  first  to  have  the  works  of  Homer  and  other  Greek 
authors  brought  to  his  native  land ;  that  he  was  the  first  to 
call  and  support  a  teacher  of  Greek ;  and  that  he  was  the 
first  among  all  Italians  who  could  read  Homer  in  the  orig- 
inal." 

THE  GERMAN  HUMANISTS 

The  German  mind  is  more  earnest,  disputative,  and 
practical  than  the  Italian,  therefore  the  trend  of  German 

HIST.  OF  ED.  —  II 


1 62  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

humanism  was  at  first  chiefly  theological,  and  the  study  of 
the  classic  languages,  especially  Hebrew  and  Greek,  was 
undertaken  for  the  purpose  of  better  understanding  the 
Holy  Scriptures.  Only  a  few  scholars,  however,  were  in- 
terested, and  not  until  a  violent  attack  was  made  upon 
Reuchlin,  was  general  attention  attracted. 

AGRICOLA   (1443-1485) 

RUDOLPHUS  AGRICOLA  was  the  first  to  prepare  the 
northern  countries  for  the  reception  of  the  classic  revival. 
After  studying  for  some  time  under  the  great  Italian  mas- 
ters, he  returned  to  Germany  and  accepted  a  professorship 
at  Heidelberg,  where  he  delivered  courses  of  lectures  on 
the  literature  of  Greece  and  Rome.  He  lectured  also  at 
Worms  at  the  request  of  the  bishop,  and  drew  around 
him  a  large  number  of  students  in  both  places.  Hallam 
says  of  him,  "  No  German  wrote  so  pure  a  style,  or  pos- 
sessed so  large  a  portion  of  classic  learning."  He  pre- 
pared the  way  for  the  introduction  of  humanistic  teach- 
ings and  some  of  his  pupils  became  the  great  leaders  of 
that  movement  among  the  Teutonic  peoples. 

The  testimony  of  Erasmus  concerning  Agricola  is  as 
follows :  "  There  was  no  branch  of  knowledge  in  which 
he  could  not  measure  himself  with  the  greatest  masters. 
Among  the  Greeks,  he  was  a  pure  Greek,  among  the 
Latins  a  pure  Roman.  .  .  .  Even  when  he  spoke  ex 
tempore,  his  speech  was  so  perfect  and  so  pure  that  one 
could  easily  believe  that  one  heard  a  Roman  rather  than 
a  German.  United  with  his  powerful  eloquence  was  the 
broadest  erudition.  He  had  investigated  all  the  mysteries 
of  philosophy,  and  thoroughly  mastered  every  branch  of 
music.  In  his  later  years  he  devoted  his  whole  soul  to 


HUMANISTIC  EDUCATORS  163 

the  mastery  of  Hebrew  and  to  the  study  of  the   Holy 
Scriptures.     He  cared  but  little  for  glory." 


REUCHLIN  (1455-1522) 

Reuchlin  may  properly  be  called  the  first  great  German 
humanist.  He  was  educated  at  Freiburg,  Paris,  and  Basel, 
and  gave  especial  attention  to  the  classic  studies,  which 
had  almost  disappeared  from  the  university  courses  in 
Germany.  He  took  his  master's  degree  at  Basel,  and  then 
began  to  lecture  on  classical  Latin  and  Greek.  Being  a 
born  teacher,  he  drew  about  him  a  great  number  of  stu- 
dents, who  became  interested  in  classic  studies.  He  made 
several  visits  to  Italy,  where  he  imbibed  the  humanistic 
theories  of  the  Italians,  though  he  was  already  far  ad- 
vanced in  those  theories  before  he  went  to  Italy.  In  1481 
he  was  appointed  professor  at  Tubingen,  which  thus  be- 
came the  first  German  university  to  teach  humanistic 
doctrines. 

At  Linz,  where  he  had  been  sent  on  an  embassy,  he 
made  the  acquaintance  of  the  emperor's  Jewish  physician, 
with  whom  he  began  the  study  of  Hebrew.  This  marks 
an  important  epoch  in  his  history,  as  he  is  best  known  for 
his  Hebrew  Grammar  and  Lexicon,  published  in  1506, 
and  for  his  championship  of  the  Hebrew  literature.  Ow- 
ing to  the  scarcity  of  classic  text-books,  Reuchlin  was 
obliged  to  mark  out  courses  for  his  students,  and,  in  a 
measure,  to  supply  text-books  for  them.  Much  of  his 
work  in  the  university  had  to  be  dictated,  and  students  were 
obliged  to  copy  their  work  from  manuscripts.  He  pub- 
lished a  Latin  lexicon  and  prepared  the  manuscript  of  a 
Greek  grammar  which  he  never  published,  but  from  which 
doubtless  he  drew  in  his  work  with  students. 


1 64 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


In  1496  his  friend  Count  Eberhard  died,  and  Reuchlin's 
enemies  succeeded  in  alienating  the  new  prince,  so  he  was 
glad  to  avail  himself  of  the  opportunity  to  go  to  the  uni- 
versity of  Heidelberg.  Here  he  gave  chief  attention  to 
Hebrew. 

While  in  Heidelberg  he  became  involved  in  an  unfortu- 
nate controversy  regarding  Hebrew  literature,  a  contro- 
versy which  was  forced  upon  him.  John  Pfefferkorn,  a 
converted  Jew,  zealous  for  the  conversion  of  his  race, 
obtained  an  order  from  the  emperor  to  confiscate  and  de- 
stroy all  Hebrew  works  which  opposed  the  Christian  faith. 
Reuchlin  was  appealed  to '  as  the  highest  authority  on 
Hebrew,  and  he  urged  that,  instead  of  destroying  the  lit- 
erature, two  professors  should  be  appointed  in  each  uni- 
versity to  teach  Hebrew  and  thereby  refute  the  Jewish 
doctors  by  making  the  students  acquainted  with  the 
Bible.  The  struggle  continued  for  years,  and  although 
the  Church  and  even  the  universities  were  against  him, 
Reuchlin  was  finally  victorious,  thereby  saving  a  noble 
literature  to  the  world.  This  was  a  great  victory  for 
humanism.  A  short  time  before  his  death  Reuchlin  re- 
turned to  Tubingen,  where  he  closed  his  illustrious  career 
in  1522. 

Reuchlin  was  the  first  to  introduce  Greek  into  Germany, 
and  the  first  to  recognize  the  necessity  of  a  knowledge  of 
Hebrew  in  interpreting  the  Holy  Scriptures.  He  began 
a  reform  in  the  schools  which  prepared  the  way  for  a  like 
movement  in  the  Church,  and  in  Luther  he  saw  the  man 
who  was  destined  to  carry  both  of  these  reforms  to  fulfill- 
ment. "  God  be  praised,"  said  he,  "  in  Luther  they  have 
found  a  man  who  will  give  them  work  enough  to  do, 
so  that  they  can  let  me,  an  old  man,  go  to  my  rest  in 
peace." 


HUMANISTIC  EDUCATORS  165 

ERASMUS  (1467-1536) 

Erasmus  was  born  at  Rotterdam.  Though  not  a  Ger- 
man, he  belonged  to  the  Teutonic  race.  He  has  well  been 
called  a  "citizen  of  the  world,"  as  he  lived  in  so  many 
countries,  and  came  to  be  the  most  learned  man  of  his 
time.  He  was  left  an  orphan  at  an  early  age,  and  his 
guardians  placed  him  in  a  convent..  They  wished  to 
make  a  monk  of  him  so  that  they  could  inherit  his  patri- 
mony, but  this  plan  was  resisted  by  the  boy  for  a  long 
time.  The  life  of  the  convent  was  very  distasteful  to 
him,  and  though  he  afterward  took  vows,  he  never  was 
in  sympathy  with  asceticism.  Possibly  the  condition  of 
the  monasteries  at  that  time  may  have  had  something  to 
do  with  the  repugnance  of  Erasmus  to  the  monastic  life. 
He  was  certainly  greatly  relieved  when  the  Pope  absolved 
him  from  his  vows. 

Erasmus  was  precocious  as  a  child,  and  it  was  early  pre- 
dicted of  him  that  he  would  be  a  great  man,  a  prediction 
which  he  fully  verified.  Through  the  influence  and  help  of 
the  Bishop  of  Cambray,  he  was  enabled  to  go  to  Paris  for 
study,  though  the  means  furnished  were  not  sufficient  for 
his  support.  He  took  pupils  and  gave  lectures,  thereby 
supplying  the  deficiency  in  his  funds.  It  is  recorded  that, 
in  his  eagerness  for  books,  he  said,  "  When  I  get  money,  I 
will  first  buy  Greek  books,  and  then  clothing."  He  also 
studied  at  Oxford,  and  afterward  at  Turin,  where  he  took 
the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Divinity.  Though  many  high 
offices  in  the  Church,  and  many  positions  in  universities, 
were  offered  to  him,  he  refused  them  all,  preferring  to  be 
an  independent  man  of  letters.  Erasmus  was  recognized 
as  the  supreme  literary  authority  of  the  world,  and  this 
lofty  position  was  the  summit  of  his  ambition.  Nothing 


1 66  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

could  turn  him  aside  from  the  path  that  led  to  that  eminence, 
and,  once  attained,  nothing  could  attract  him  away  from  it. 

Basel  had  become  the  center  of  the  new  printing  indus- 
try. This  led  Erasmus  to  choose  that  city  as  his  home  for 
the  latter  part  of  his  life,  and  here  he  furthered  the  cause 
of  humanism  as  no  other  man  had  done,  by  editing  and 
giving  to  the  world  many  of  the  classic  treasures  of  the 
monasteries.  He  translated  Greek  works  into  Latin, 
thereby  making  them  available  to  the  world,  as  Latin 
was  better  understood  than  Greek.  His  edition  of  the 
Greek  Testament  was  his  most  eminent  service,  though 
his  "  Colloquies"  are  better  known.  His  "  Praise  of  Folly" 
is  a  satirical  work,  in  which  he  holds  up  to  ridicule  the 
ignorance  and  vice  of  the  monks. 

Though  he  never  broke  away  from  the  Church,  without 
doubt  his  sympathies  were  with  the  reformers.  But 
neither  the  persuasions  nor  the  denunciations  of  Luther 
could  bring  him  to  take  a  decided  stand  on  either  side. 
He  thought  that  the  reform  could  be  wrought  within  the 
Church.  He  accepted  the  dogmas  of  the  Church,  and  re- 
mained within  it  as  long  as  he  lived. 

Erasmus  was  the  exact  counterpart  of  Luther.  He 
appealed  to  the  limited  few,  Luther  to  the  masses ;  he  to 
the  educated  and  higher  classes,  Luther  to  the  ignorant  and 
lowly;  he  was  a  man  of  reflection,  Luther  a  man  of  action. 
The  apparent  vacillation  of  Erasmus  may  have  been  due 
to  ill  health,  to  the  influence  of  the  Pope,  to  the  ties  of  the 
Church  in  which  he  had  been  reared,  to  the  satisfaction  he 
found  in  his  eminent  literary  position,  and  to  his  dislike 
for  controversy. 

Erasmus  gives  us  some  very  valuable  pedagogical  teach- 
ings, which  may  be  summed  up  as  follows :  — 

Pedagogy  of  Erasmus.  —  i .    The  mother  is  the  natural 


HUMANISTIC  EDUCATORS  167 

educator  of  the  child  in  its  early  years.  The  mother  who 
does  not  care  for  the  education  of  her  children  is  only  half 
a  mother. 

2.  Until  the  seventh  year  the  child  should  have  little  to 
do  but  play,  in  order  to  develop  the  body.     It  must  have 
no  earnest  work,  but  must  be  taught  politeness. 

3.  After  the  seventh  year  earnest  work  must  begin. 
Latin  and  Greek  (which  should  be  studied  together)  must 
be  taught  early  so  that  right  pronunciation  and  a  good 
vocabulary  may  be  attained. 

4.  The  first  subject  to  be  learned  is  grammar.     Lan- 
guage is  necessary  before  a  knowledge  of  other  things  can 
be  gained. 

5.  Teachers  should  be  better  trained  and  better  paid, 
and  suitable  places  must  be  furnished  for  the  schools. 

6.  The  religious  side  of  education  must  not  be  neg- 
lected. 

7.  Great  attention  must  be  paid  to  the  cultivation  of  the 
memory :  (a)  by  a  proper  understanding  of   the  subject ; 
(b)  by  logical  order  in  thinking ;  (c)  by  comparison. 

8.  As  the  bee  collects  honey  from  many  flowers,  so 
knowledge  is  gathered  from  many  sources. 

9.  The  foundation  of  all  training  of  children  must  be 
laid  in  the  home.     Parents  should  know  what  their  chil- 
dren ought  to  be  taught.     Above  all  things  children  must 
be  taught  to  obey. 

10.  The  first  care  with  girls  is  to  inculcate  in  them  re- 
ligious feelings ;  the  second  to  protect  them  from  contami- 
nation ;  the  third,  to  guard  them  from  idleness. 


Literature.. —  White,  Eighteen  Christian  Centuries  ;  Taylor,  History 
of  Germany;  Draper,  Intellectual  Development  of  Europe;  Guizot, 
History  of  Civilization ;  Lord,  Beacon  Lights  ;  Seebohm,  The  Protestant 
Revolution  ;  Gasquet,  Eve  of  the  Reformation ;  Spaulding,  History  of 
the  Reformation ;  Bryce,  The  Holy  Roman  Empire ;  Morris,  Era  of 
the  Protestant  Revolution  ;  Hurst,  History  of  the  Reformation ;  Lewis, 
History  of  Germany;  Myers,  Mediaeval  and  Modern  History;  Schiller, 
The  Thirty  Years'  War ;  Hallam,  Literary  History  ;  Kiddle  and  Schem, 
Cyclopaedia  of  Education  ;  Dyer,  Modern  Europe  ;  D^Aubigne,  History 
of  the  Reformation ;  Yonge,  Three  Centuries  of  Modern  History ; 
Mombert,  Great  Lives  ;  Schivickerath,  Jesuit  Education. 


Historical  Conditions. — At  the  beginning  of  the  six- 
teenth century  we  find  the  stage  of  political,  religious,  and 
educational  activity  transferred  from  the  shores  of  the 
Mediterranean  to  the  north  of  the  Alps.  We  have  seen 
the  great  work  of  civilization  taken  from  the  Greek  and 
Latin  races  and  committed  to  the  Teutonic  race.  We 
have  traced  the  humanistic  movement  from  its  birthplace 
in  Italy  to  Germany,  where  it  found  a  more  congenial 
atmosphere  and  a  more  suitable  soil.  The  world  was  ripe 
for  a  great  revolution,  which  was  destined  to  advance  the 
interests  of  mankind  with  gigantic  strides. 

The  invention  of  printing  by  Gutenberg,  in  the  middle 
of  the  fifteenth  century,  must  be  mentioned  as  the  primary 
material  agency  in  forwarding  this  advance.  It  was  said 

168 


THE  REFORMATION  169 

of  this  art  that  it  would  "  give  the  deathblow  to  the  super- 
stition of  the  Middle  Ages."  It  multiplied  readers  a 
hundredfold ;  it  stimulated  authorship ;  it  revolutionized 
literature,  because  it  made  the  preservation  and  dissemina- 
tion of  thought  easy ;  it  was  a  mighty  influence  in  bring- 
ing about  universal  education,  a  principle  for  which  the 
Reformation  stood. 

Another  event  of  great  importance  was  the  discovery  of 
America,  which  stimulated  various  European  enterprises. 
Thus,  at  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century,  the  world 
awakened  from  its  long  sleep,  and  educational  enterprise 
was  born  anew. 

The  German  Reformation  had  been  preceded  by  similar 
movements  in  other  lands.  Huss  and  Jerome  of  Prague, 
in  Bohemia,  Wyclif  in  England,  Zwingli  in  Switzerland, 
the  Waldenses  in  Italy,  and  the  Albigenses  in  France,  had 
raised  their  voices  in  solemn  protest  against  clerical  abuses,1 
and  many  of  the  reformers  had  paid  for  their  temerity  by 
martyrdom.  But  the  German  Reformation,  under  the 
leadership  of  Martin  Luther,  was  destined  to  exert  a 
mighty  influence  throughout  northern  Europe,  and  to  set 
in  motion  impulses  which  were  to  shape  all  later  history. 

The  chief  rulers  of  Europe  were  Frederick  the  Wise  of 
Saxony,  known  as  Luther's  friend,  Henry  the  Eighth  of 
England,  Francis  the  First  of  France,  and  Charles  the 
Fifth,  king  of  Spain,  Naples,  Sicily,  and  Austria,  and  after- 
ward emperor  of  Germany.  Leo  the  Tenth  was  Pope, 
and  he  had  great  influence  in  temporal  affairs.  Emperor 
Charles  the  Fifth  was  the  most  powerful  ruler  of  this  period. 
Though  a  foreigner  in  manners,  customs,  and  sympathy, 
and  unacquainted  with  the  German  tongue,  he  became 
emperor  of  Germany  by  bribing  the  electors  who  had  a 
1  See  Brother  Azarias,  "  Philosophy  of  Literature,"  pp.  122-124. 


170  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

voice  in  selecting  the  ruler  of  that  nation.  It  is  said  that 
he  paid  $1,500,000  to  these  corrupt  electors,  besides  making 
many  promises  of  future  favors.  He  was  treacherous,  and 
never  hesitated  to  break  the  most  solemn  pledges  when  his 
interests  so  demanded.  Bayard  Taylor  says  of  him,  "  His 
election  was  a  crime,  from  the  effects  of  which  Germany 
did  not  recover  for  three  hundred  years." 

Intellectual  Conditions.  —  These,  then,  were  the  external 
conditions  which  existed  at  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth 
century.  We  have  seen  that  the  need  of  reformation  was 
acknowledged  on  all  sides.  There  were  but  few  good 
teachers  to  be  found,  even  in  the  Church  which  had  so 
long  been  the  mother  of  schools.  Education  was  at  such 
a  low  ebb,  and  the  advantages  offered  by  the  schools  were 
so  poor,  and  of  such  a  doubtful  character,  that  but  few 
persons  cared  to  avail  themselves  of  their  privileges. 
Even  the  universities  failed  to  educate.  Luther  says,  "  Is 
it  not  pitiable  that  a  boy  has  been  obliged  to  study  twenty 
years  or  longer  to  learn  enough  bad  Latin  to  become  a 
priest,  and  read  mass  ?  "  Again  he  says,  "  Such  teachers 
and  masters  we  have  been  obliged  to  have  everywhere, 
who  have  known  nothing  themselves,  and  have  been  able 
to  teach  nothing  good  or  useful." 

There  was  need,  then,  of  reform  in  education  as  well 
as  in  religion,  and  Luther  took  the  burden  of  both  upon 
his  shoulders.  As  an  educational  reformer,  he  has  earned 
for  himself  the  world's  gratitude.  It  must  be  admitted 
that  Luther's  main  purpose  was  the  reformation  of  the 
Church,  and  that  his  educational  work  merely  grew  out 
of  the  need  of  general  intelligence  as  a  necessary  ad- 
junct to  that  work.  Of  the  existing  conditions,  Com- 
payr6  well  says,  "  With  La  Salle  and  the  foundation  of 
the  Institute  of  the  Brethren  of  the  Christian  Schools,  the 


THE  REFORMATION  171 

historian  of  education  recognizes  the  Catholic  origin  of 
primary  instruction  ;  in  the  decrees  and  laws  of  the  French 
Revolution,  its  lay  and  philosophical  origin ;  but  it  is  to 
the  Protestant  Reformation,  —  to  Luther  in  the  sixteenth 
century,  and  to  Comenius  in  the  seventeenth,  —  that  must 
be  ascribed  the  honor  of  having  first  organized  schools  for 
the  people.  In  its  origin,  the  primary  school  is  the  child 
of  Protestantism,  and  its  cradle  was  the  Reformation."  1 

LUTHER   (1483-1546) 

Martin  Luther  was  born  at  Eisleben,  Germany,  of  poor 
and  humble  parents.  He  was  brought  up  under  the  rigid 
discipline  of  the  typical  German  home,  in  which  the  rod 
was  not  spared.  Upon  this  point  he  writes,  "  My  parents' 
severity  made  me  timid ;  their  sternness  and  the  strict  life 
they  led  me  made  me  afterward  go  into  a  monastery  and 
become  a  monk.  They  meant  well,  but  they  did  not  under- 
stand the  art  of  adjusting  their  punishments." 

When  he  was  fourteen  years  of  age,  his  parents,  then  in 
better  circumstances,  sent  him  to  Magdeburg  to  prepare 
for  the  university.  But  the  expense  being  too  great,  he 
was  withdrawn  from  this  school  and  sent  to  Eisenach, 
where  he  could  live  with  relatives.  Here  he  sang  in  the 
street  for  alms,  and  his  sweet  voice  attracted  the  attention 
of  Ursula  Cotta,  a  wealthy  lady,  who  took  him  to  her 
own  home  and  gave  him  an  excellent  teacher. 

When  eighteen  years  of  age  he  entered  the  university  of 
Erfurt,  then  a  center  of  humanistic  learning.  He  made 

1  "  History  of  Pedagogy,"  p.  112. 

Karl  Schmidt,  in  speaking  of  the  spirit  of  the  Reformation,  says,  "These 
ideas  form  the  basis  of  the  common  school,  which  up  to  this  time  had  been 
sporadically  established  only  in  isolated  places."  "  Geschichte  der  Padagogik," 
Vol.  Ill,  p.  1 6. 


172  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

marvelous  progress  in  his  studies  until  he  took  his  degree. 
His  father  had  intended  him  for  the  law,  but  Luther  de- 
termined to  devote  himself  to  the  Church,  much  to  his 
father's  disappointment.  Accordingly  he  became  an 
Augustinian  monk  when  twenty-two  years  of  age.  Unlike 
many  of  his  brethren,  he  kept  up  his  studies  while  in  the 
monastery,  and  was  called  to  a  professorship  in  the  new 
university  at  Wittenberg  in  1 508,  where  he  found  an 
ample  field  for  his  remarkable  powers.  Two  years  later, 
he  went  as  a  delegate  to  the  papal  court  at  Rome,  where 
his  eyes  were  opened  to  the  condition  of  the  Church  in  her 
holiest  sanctuaries.  Returning  to  Wittenberg,  he  continued 
his  studies  and  his  lectures,  and  drew  about  him  a  great 
number  of  students.  His  lectures  and  his  writings  against 
the  practices  of  the  Church  became  so  pronounced  that  he 
was  summoned  before  the  Diet  of  Worms  and  commanded 
to  retract.  This  he  refused  to  do  in  the  memorable  words : 
"Here  I  stand;  I  cannot  do  otherwise.  God  help  me! 
Amen."'  On  his  return  from  Worms,  fearing  for  his  safety, 
his  friends  took  him  prisoner  and  confined  him  in  the  Wart- 
burg  castle  at  Eisenach.  During  the  nine  months  of  his 
confinement  he  translated  the  Bible  into  German.1  Luther 
took  great  pains  to  make  the  language  so  pure  and  plain 
that  it  could  be  understood  by  the  common  people,  to  whom 
he  appealed.  He  was  never  ashamed  of  his  humble  origin. 
When  he  came  to  be  the  honored  friend  and  trusted  ad- 

1  In  1877,  Mr.  H.  Stevens  published  at  South  Kensington,  a  "List  of 
Bibles  in  the  Caxton  Exhibition."  He  says :  "  Not  only  are  there  many  editions 
of  the  Latin  Vulgate  long  anterior  to  that  time  (1507  A.D.),  but  there  were 
actually  nine  German  editions  of  the  Bible  in  the  Caxton  exhibition  earlier 
than  1483,  the  year  of  Luther's  birth,  and  at  least  three  more  before  the  end 
of  the  century."  The  general  use  of  the  printing  press  about  this  time  made 
popular  translations  opportune,  as  it  placed  the  Bible  within  the  reach  of  all. 
It  thus  became  a  powerful  instrument  for  universal  education. 


THE  REFORMATION  173 

viser  of  princes  and  kings,  he  was  wont  to  say,  "  I  am  a 
peasant's  son;  my  father,  grandfather,  and  remote  ancestors 
were  nothing  but  veritable  peasants." 

The  language  of  Luther's  translation  of  the  Bible  be- 
came the  standard  German,  which  was  to  supplant  the 
many  dialects. 

His  great  watchword  was,  "  Make  the  people  acquainted 
with  the  Word  of  God."  But  the  Bible  was  of  little  use  to 
the  masses  so  long  as  they  could  not  read.  Luther  therefore 
set  himself  sturdily  to  the  improvement  of  the  schools, 
which  were  in  a  deplorable  condition.  He  urged  the  prin- 
ciple of  parental  responsibility  for  the  education  of  chil- 
dren. "  Believe  me,"  said  he,  "  it  is  far  more  important 
that  you  exercise  care  in  training  your  children  than  that 
you  seek  indulgences,  say  many  prayers,  go  much  to 
church,  or  make  many  vows."  His  pedagogy  constitutes 
the  foundation  of  the  German  common  school  system  of 
to-day.  Luther,  then,  must  be  remembered  as  the  great- 
est educator  of  his  time  for  two  reasons. 

1 .  He  gave  the  German  people  a  language  by  his  transla- 
tion of  the  Holy  Scriptures. 

2.  He  laid  the  foundation  of  the  German  common  school 
system. 

Luther's  Pedagogy.  —  i.  Parents  are  responsible  for  the 
education  of  their  children. 

2.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  State  to  require  regular  attend- 
ance at  school  of  every  child,   and  the  parents  must  be 
held  accountable  for  non-attendance. 

3.  Religion  is  the  foundation  of  all  school  instruction. 

4.  Every  child  must  learn  not  only  the  ordinary  sub- 
jects taught  at  school,  but  also  the  practical  duties  of  life, 
—  boys,  a  trade  ;  girls,  housework. 

5-    Every  clergyman  must    have   pedagogical   training 


174  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION- 

and    experience    in    teaching    before    entering    upon    a 
pastorate.1 

6.  The  teacher  must  be  trained,  and  in  that  training 
singing  is  included. 

7.  Children  must  be  taught  according  to  nature's  laws, 
—  the  knowledge  of  the  thing  must  precede  its  name. 

8.  Due  respect  should  be  shown  to  the  office  of  teacher, 
and  by  example  and  precept  every  teacher  should  be  wor- 
thy of  respect. 

9.  His  course  of  study  included  Latin  and  Greek,  his- 
tory, mathematics,  singing,  and  physical  training,  besides 
religion. 

10.  Every  school  should  have  a  library. 

11.  It  is  the  inherent  right  of  every  child  to  be  edu- 
cated, and  the  State  must  provide  the  means  to  that  end. 

The  principles  above  stated  are  fundamental  in  the 
German  school  systems  of  the  present  time.  Religious 
instruction,  trained  teachers,  compulsory  and  universal 
education,  are  the  central  principles  of  the  schools  of 
Germany  and  of  many  other  nations.  Luther  could  not 
give  his  chief  attention  to  education,  but  with  deep  insight 
he  saw  the  necessity  of  it,  and  laid  the  foundations  upon 
which  later  generations  have  built  a  marvelous  structure, 
true  to  the  design  of  its  architect. 


MELANCHTHON    (1497-1560) 

Philipp  Melanchthon  was  the  friend,  colaborer,  and 
adviser  of  Luther.  Luther  was  a  resolute,  energetic, 
impulsive  man ;  Melanchthon  was  quiet,  reserved,  and 

1  This  was  because  the  pastor  had  an  oversight  of  the  school,  a  practice 
still  very  common  in  Germany. 


THE  REFORMATION  175 

conciliating.  There  is  no  doubt  that  these  two  men  of 
such  opposite  dispositions  exerted  a  salutary  influence 
upon  each  other,  —  Luther  stimulated  and  encouraged 
Melanchthon ;  Melanchthon  checked  and  restrained  Lu- 
ther. It  is  certain  that  each  was  helpful  to  Jhe  other, 
and  that  the  great  cause  of  the  Reformation,  to  which 
they  mutually  consecrated  themselves,  was  furthered  by 
their  friendship  and  union. 

Melanchthon  had  excellent  training  as  a  boy,  and  early 
showed  signs  of  unusual  ability.  At  fifteen  he  took  his 
bachelor's  degree  at  Heidelberg  University,  and  when  only 
eighteen  years  of  age  Erasmus  said  of  him,  "  What  hopes 
may  we  not  conceive  of  Philipp  Melanchthon,  though  as 
yet  very  young,  almost  a  boy,  but  equally  to  be  admired  for 
his  proficiency  in  both  languages  !  What  quickness  of  inven- 
tion !  What  purity  of  diction  !  What  vastness  of  memory  ! 
What  variety  of  reading  !  What  modesty  and  gracefulness 
of  behavior !  And  what  a  princely  mind!  " 

After  completing  his  course  at  Heidelberg,  he  went  to 
Tubingen,  where  his  studies  were  directed  by  Reuchlin,  who 
was  his  kinsman.  He  gave  public  lectures  at  Tubingen 
on  rhetoric  and  on  various  classic  authors,  attracting  world- 
wide attention.  In  1518  he  was  called  to  the  Greek  pro- 
fessorship at  Wittenberg,  where  he  made  the  acquaintance 
of  Luther.  Bishop  Hurst  says,  "The  life  of  Melanchthon 
was  now  so  thoroughly  identified  with  that  of  Luther  that 
it  is  difficult  to  separate  the  two.  They  lived  in  the  same 
town  of  Wittenberg.  They  were  in  constant  consultation, 
each  doing  what  he  was  most  able  to  do,  and  both  working 
with  unwearied  zeal  for  the  triumph  of  the  cause  to  which 
they  gave  their  life." 

His  success  at  Wittenberg  was  assured  from  the  first. 
Though  youthful  in  appearance,  being  but  twenty-one 


176  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION- 

years  of  age,  his  pure  logic,  his  profound  knowledge  of 
philosophy,  his  familiarity  with  the  Scriptures,  his  perfect 
mastery  of  the  classic  languages,  his  fine  diction,  and  his 
broad  knowledge  awoke  enthusiasm  at  once.  Wittenberg, 
possessing  two  such  great  men  as  Luther  and  Melanchthon, 
became  the  center  of  humanistic  studies,  not  less  than  two 
thousand  students  being  attracted  to  its  university.  Me- 
lanchthon was  an  inspiring  teacher;  among  his  pupils 
were  men  who  afterward  became  leaders  of  thought  in  Ger- 
many, and  who  did  much  to  shape  the  destiny  of  Europe. 

Perhaps  Melanchthon's  greatest  service  to  the  schools 
was  his  publication  of  text-books,  which  were  very  much 
needed.  He  wrote  a  Greek  grammar  for  boys  when  him- 
self but  a  boy  of  sixteen.  Grammar  he  defined  as  "the 
science  of  speaking  and  writing  correctly,"  a  definition 
that  has  been  scarcely  improved  upon.  Ten  years  later 
his  Latin  grammar  was  published,  after  being  tested  for 
some  years  in  his  classes.  For  more  than  one  hundred 
years  this  was  the  principal  Latin  grammar  in  use,  and 
there  were  not  less  than  fifty-one  editions  of  it. 

He  wrote  also  text-books  on  logic,  rhetoric,  and  ethics. 
It  will  be  seen  that  the  ^trivium  —  grammar,  rhetoric,  logic 
—  furnished  the  foundation  of  his  literary  activity,  so  far 
as  the  schools  are  concerned.  He  was  active  also  in 
authorship  of  theological  works,  producing  the  first  theo- 
logical work  of  the  Protestant  Church,  the  "  Loci  Com- 
munes," which  Luther  placed  next  to  the  Bible  for 
theological  study. 

The  interest  of  Melanchthon  for  education  made  him 
the  chief  adviser  and  leader  among  the  school  men.  His 
advice  was  constantly  sought  in  the  educational  movements 
of  Germany.  After  visiting  the  schools  of  Saxony,  he 
drew  up  the  "  Saxony  School  Plan,"  which  furnished  the 


THE  REFORMATION-  177 

basis  of  various  similar  organizations  throughout  Germany. 
There  were  three  fundamental  principles  in  this  system. 

1.  There  must  not  be  too  many  studies  in  the  schools, 
and  Latin  should  be  the  only  language  taught. 

2.  There  must  not  be  too  many  books  used. 

3.  The  children  should  be  divided  into  at  least  three 
classes,  or  grades. 

In  the  first  grade,  reading,  writing,  the  Lord's  Prayer, 
the  Creed,  prayers  and  hymns,  and  some  Latin  should 
be  taught.  In  the  second,  the  Latin  grammar,  Latin 
authors,  and  religion.  In  the  third,  completion  of  the 
grammar,  difficult  Latin  authors,  rhetoric,  and  logic. 
Williams  calls  this  "  Melanchthon's  somewhat  artless 
ideas  of  a  proper  school  system,"  which  he  excuses  as 
being  "  marked  possibly  by  the  crudity  of  a  first  effort  at 
organization,  but  more  probably  controlled  in  form  by  the 
fewness  of  teachers  in  the  schools  of  his  time." 

Melanchthon  is  also  known  as  the  fir^t  Protestant 
psychologist. 

To  sum  up  the  educational  work  of  Melanchthon,  we 
find  that  he  was  a  "  born  teacher,"  attracting  and  inspiring 
thousands  of  young  men  whom  he  instructed ;  that  he  was 
the  author  of  many  text-books  for  the  schools,  and  of 
theological  works ;  that  he  was  an  educational  authority ; 
that  he  outlined  a  complete  school  system ;  and  that  he 
was  the  adviser  and  friend  of  Luther  in  the  work  of  the 
Reformation. 


HIST.   OF  ED.  —  12 


CHAPTER  XXIX 

OTHER  PROTESTANT  EDUCATORS 

THE  educational  work  of  Luther  and  Melanchthon 
bore  remarkable  fruit.  Luther  had  urged  parents  to 
see  to  it  that  their  children  should  be  educated,  and  had 
appealed  to  magistrates  to  assist  the  Church  in  main- 
taining schools.  He  insisted  upon  compulsory  educa- 
tion in  the  memorable  words,  "  The  authorities  are  bound 
to  compel  their  subjects  to  send  their  children  to  school." 
As  a  result  schools  were  organized  in  Nuremberg,  Frank- 
fort, Ilfeld,  Strasburg,  Hamburg,  Bremen,  Dantzic,  and 
many  other  places.  Eton,  Rugby,  Harrow,  and  other 
educational  institutions  were  founded  about  this  time  in 
England. 

Melanchthon's  course  of  study  (Schulplan)  for  Saxony 
had  appeared  in  1528,  and  in  1558  the  school  law  of  Wiir- 
temberg,  by  far  the  best  yet  enacted,  went  into  force. 
Other  German  provinces  adopted  more  or  less  efficient 
school  systems,  and  for  the  first  time  in  the  history  of 
Christian  education,  the  duty  of  the  State  to  assume 
the  responsibility  of  the  education  of  its  'subjects  was 
recognized.  Out  of  these  primitive  systems  have  grown 
the  completer  systems  of  the  present,  after  more  than 
three  centuries  of  experiment,  study,  and  struggle. 

The  Reformation  taught  the  right  of  every  person 
to  an  education,  primarily,  it  is  true,  for  religious  ends, 
and  it  gradually  came  to  be  understood  that  the  State 

178 


OTHER  PROTESTANT  EDUCATORS 


179 


must  assame  that  duty.  For  the  Church  had  neither 
the  means  nor  the  power  to  accomplish  universal  educa- 
tion. But  it  was  not  till  the  nineteenth  century  that 
this  end  was  reached,  whereby  the  advantages  of  educa- 
tion were  offered  to  the  child  of  every  parent  of  what- 
ever rank  or  station,  and  the  State  assumed  full  control 
of  the  schools. 

This  was  the  great  work  marked  out  by  Luther  and 
Melanchthon,  and  their  pupils  and  disciples  carried  that 
work  to  its  fulfillment.  Among  these  immediate  followers 
we  may  mention  Sturm,1  Trotzendorf,  and  Neander, 
who  contributed  to  educational  reform. 

STURM2  (1507-1589) 

Johann  Sturm  is  counted  among  the  greatest  schoolmen 
that  the  Reformation  produced,  though  he  belonged  to  the 
French  rather  than  the  German  reformers.  He  re- 
ceived an  excellent  training  in  the  schools  of  Germany, 
and  completed  his  education  at  Paris,  where  he  after- 
ward became  professor  of  Greek.  He  soon  gained  such 
a  wide  reputation  that  when  only  thirty  years  of  age  he 
was  called  to  the  rectorship  of  the  Gymnasium  at  Stras- 
burg,  a  position  which  he  held  for  forty-seven  years, 
and  where  he  gained  lasting  fame.  This  fame  rests 
not  on  his  work  as  a  teacher,  but  as  an  organizer  and 
an  executive.  Paulsen  doubts  his  having  been  a  great 
teacher.  He  says,  "  He  was  a  man  who  gave  his  at- 
tention to  great  things.  He  had  his  hands  in  universal 
politics ;  he  was  in  the  service  of  nearly  all  the  European 

1  Though   Sturm  was  not  a  Lutheran,   he  was  a  Protestant,  being  a  fol- 
lower of  Calvin. 

2  See  Quick,  "  Educational  Reformers,"  and  Williams,  "  History  of  Modern 
Education,"  p.  88. 


180  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

potentates,  drawing  his  yearly  salary  from  all.  ...  It  is 
not  probable  that  such  a  wonderful  man  was  also  a  good 
schoolmaster."  1 

But  his  great  work  was  the  organization  of  the  Stras- 
burg  Gymnasium,  especially  its  course  of  study,  which 
became  the  model  for  the  Latin  schools  for  many  years. 
Sturm's  counsel  was  sought  by  schoolmen  all  over 
Europe,  and  he  came  to  be  the  recognized  leader  of 
educational  forces.  His  school  course  took  the  boy  at 
six  years  of  age  and  provided  at  first  a  nine  years', 
afterward  a  ten  years'  course,  ending  at  the  sixteenth 
year  of  age.  He  added  a  five  years'  course  to  this  later, 
and  evidently  planned  to  found  a  university. 2 

Sturm  believed  that  the  mother  should  have  charge 
of  the  child  for  the  first  six  years  of  its  life.  In  his 
ten  years'  course  he  required  ten  years  of  Latin,  six  of 
Greek,  besides  rhetoric,  logic,  religion,  and  music.  He 
introduced  the  practice  of  translating  Latin  into  Ger- 
man and  then  translating  it  back  into  Latin. 3  His 
course  took  no  account  of  German,  history,  mathematics, 
or  science.  He  thus  sought  to  reinstate  Greece  and 
Rome,  but  entirely  neglected  those  things  which  pre- 
pare for  life.  Williams  says,  "With  regard  to  Sturm's 

1  "  Geschichte  des  Gelehrten  Unterrichts." 

2  Sturm's  school  course  appeared  in  1538.     It  was  not  the  oldest  school 
course  of  the  Protestants.     The  oldest  school  course  for  a  German   school 
was  prepared  by  Johannes  Agricola  and  Hermann  Talich  in  1525  for  the 
school    at    Eisleben,    Luther's    birthplace.      Indeed,    Paulsen    thinks    that 
Melanchthon  had  a  hand   in  its   preparation.     He  says   ("Geschichte  des 
Gelehrten  Unterrichts,"  p.  182),  "This  is  the  oldest  published  school  course 
of  the    Reformed   Church,   which,  if  not   composed  by    Melanchthon,  was 
without  doubt  outlined,  or  at  least  approved,  by  him."     This  was  discovered 
in  1865  by  F.  L.  Hoffmann  in  the  Hamburg  city  library. 

8  See  Ascham,  p.  191,  and  Ratke,  p.  210. 


OTHER  PROTESTANT  EDUCATORS  l8l 

plan  of  organization,  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  it 
is  the  very  earliest  scheme  that  we  have,  looking  to  an 
extended,  systematic,  well-articulated  course  of  studies 
for  a  school  of  several  teachers,  in  which  is  assigned 
to  each  class  such  portion  of  the  subject-matter  of  the 
course  of  instruction  as  is  suited  to  the  age  and  stage 
of  advancement  of  its  pupils."  1 

This  course  of  study  attracted  the  attention  of  all  Europe. 
Karl  Schmidt  says  that  in  1578  "his  school  numbered  sev- 
eral thousand  students,  among  whom  were  two  hundred  of 
noble  birth,  twenty-four  counts  and  barons,  and  three  princes 
—  from  Portugal,  Poland,  Denmark,  England,  etc." 

Paulsen,  while  not  belittling  the  work  of  Sturm,  thinks 
that  the  celebrated  course  has  but  little  in  it  different  from 
the  courses  of  the  Wittenberg  reformers.  He  says,  "  If 
Melahchthon  had  had  the  planning  of  a  school  course  for 
a  large  city,  it  would  have  been  much  the  same  (as  Sturm's). 
The  Saxon  school  plan  of  1528  was  effective  only  in  small 
cities  and  country  places.  The  basis  of  both  (Melanch- 
thon's  and  Sturm's)  is  the  same,  —  grammar,  rhetoric,  dia- 
lectics, with  music  and  religion.  In  the  large  schools, 
like  those  of  Nuremberg  and  Hamburg,  a  beginning  of 
Greek  and  mathematics  was  added."2 

Sturm's  course  has  the  merit  of  definiteness,  thorough- 
ness, and  unity.  There  seems  to  be  some  doubt  as  to  his 
success  in  carrying  it  out.  It  is  certain  that  but  few  stu- 
dents completed  his  course  compared  with  the  number  who 
began  it.  Instead  of  sixty  to  seventy  pupils  in  the  last 
class,  there  were  only  nine  or  ten.  The  influence  of  Sturm, 
however,  spread  not  only  over  Germany,  but  also  reached 
to  many  other  countries,  and  his  Strasburg  course  of 

1  "  History  of  Modern  Education,"  p.  91. 

2  "Geschichte  des  Gelehrten  Unterrichts,"  p.  197. 


1 82  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

study  shaped  the  work  in  the  classical  schools  for  many 
years. 

TROTZENDORF  (1490-1556) 

Valentine  Trotzendorf  was  born  in  poverty  and  beset  by 
many  difficulties  in  boyhood.  His  mother  was  a  constant 
inspiration  to  him,  and  when  he  was  disposed  to  give  up  the 
struggle,  her  words,  "  My  son,  stick  to  your  school,"  led 
him  to  continue  until  he  overcame  the  obstacles.  When 
ready  for  the  university  he  went  to  Leipsic,  where  he 
studied  Greek  and  Latin  for  two  years.  In  1515  he  be- 
came a  teacher  in  a  village  near  Leipsic,  a  position  that 
he  retained  for  three  years.  He  then  went  to  Wittenberg, 
where  he  studied  under  Melanchthon  for  five  years,  and  be- 
came very  intimate  with  that  great  teacher.  His  fame  as 
a  teacher  was  made  at  Goldberg,  where  he  was  thirty-five 
years  rector  of  a  school.  Like  Melanchthon,  he  believed 
that  the  fear  of  the  Lord  is  the  beginning  of  wisdom,  and 
that  the  school  is  an  adjunct  of  the  Church.  With  Sturm, 
he  laid  great  stress  upon  the  classic  languages,  and  in- 
sisted that  his  pupils  should  speak  in  the  Latin  tongue. 
As  a  teacher  he  possessed  remarkable  power.  He  loved 
to  mingle  with  his  pupils,  converse  with  and  question  them, 
and  he  had  great  skill  in  drawing  them  out.  In  his  in- 
struction he  employed  many  illustrations,  and  proceeded 
from  the  concrete  to  the  abstract. 

His  discipline  was  unique  and  original.  He  introduced 
a  practice  before  unknown,  namely,  that  of  self-govern- 
ment on  the  part  of  the  students,  an  experiment  that  has 
been  tried  in  recent  years  with  excellent  results  in  many 
American  institutions  for  higher  learning.  Trotzendorf 
established  a  senate  of  twelve  students,  a  consul,  and  other 
officers,  who  were  made  responsible  for  the  government  of 


OTHER  PROTESTANT  EDUCATORS  183 

the  school.  These  constituted  a  court  of  which  he  was 
president.  Offenders  were  brought  before  the  tribunal 
and  tried  with  great  formality  and  dignity.  This  body 
sentenced  the  culprit  to  such  punishment  as  his  guilt 
merited,  the  master  reserving  to  himself  the  right  of  being 
a  court  of  final  appeal.  Besides  the  officers  above  named, 
there  were  others  who  were  in  charge  of  the  boys  in  their 
domestic  relations,  —  such  as  keeping  guard  over  their 
punctuality,  table  manners,  diligence  in  study,  etc.  It  was 
considered  a  high  honor  to  hold  one  of  these  offices.  The 
scheme  worked  well  under  Trotzendorf ;  it  taught  self- 
government,  and  inculcated  the  spirit  of  freedom  as  well 
as  an  intelligent  submission  to  law.  Trotzendorf  thus  gives 
an  example  of  school  government  which  is  quite  in  accord 
with  the  spirit  of  modern  times.  He  also  had  his  best 
pupils  instruct  the  lower  classes  under  his  supervision,  and 
thus  prepared  them  to  go  forth  as  teachers.  Teachers 
from  his  school  were  sought  for  by  intelligent  patrons  of 
education  in  all  parts  of  Europe. 

NEANDER  (1525-1595) 

Michael  Neander  was  another  of  Melanchthon's  pupils 
who  became  great  as  a  teacher.  Neander  was  for  forty-five 
years  the  sole  teacher  of  a  Latin  school  at  Ilfeld.  Though 
he  never  had  many  pupils,  his  school  was  pronounced  by 
Melanchthon  as  "  the  best  seminary  in  the  country."  He 
was  a  most  successful  teacher,  and  the  students  whom 
he  sent  to  the  university  were  found  to  possess  the  very 
best  preparation,  and  always  stood  among  the  first.  He 
was  well  versed  in  medicine  and  chemistry,  and  was  one 
of  the  best  Greek  and  Latin  scholars  of  his  time.  Con- 
trary to  the  practice  of  his  contemporaries,  he  favored  the 
teaching  of  geography,  history,  and  the  natural  sciences. 


1 84  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

His  position  in  regard  to  the  sciences  places  him  in  ad- 
vance of  other  educators,  and  in  this  he  was  a  follower  of 
Melanchthon,  who  also  believed  that  science  should  be 
taught. 

Neander  is  celebrated  also  for  the  Greek  and  Latin  text- 
books which  he  wrote.  Speaking  of  these  books,  Paulsen 
says,  "  What  he  especially  emphasized  is :  as  few  and  as 
short  rules  as  possible,  and  these  rules  are  to  be  progress- 
ive ;  at  the  proper  time  they  are  to  be  committed  to 
memory.  The  pupil  must  also  commit  words,  phrases, 
and  sentences  to  memory,  which  is  equally  important." 
Lastly,  he  gave  a  careful  outline  of  the  work  of  a  boy 
for  every  year  from  the  sixth  to  the  eighteenth.  This 
was  especially  valuable  for  that  period  when  parents  and 
teachers  alike  had  nothing  to  guide  them  except  the  mo- 
nastic course  of  study,  and  when  the  world  was  giving  birth 
to  new  theories  in  education  as  well  as  in  religion. 

Neander's  whole  life  was  concentrated  on  the  work  of 
teaching,  and  in  the  schoolroom  he  found  his  greatest  joy. 
Here,  also,  he  made  a  lasting  impression  upon  his  pupils 
and  upon  mankind.  His  father  was  mistaken  when  he 
addressed  the  boy,  "  Into  a  cloister  with  you ;  you  will 
amount  to  nothing  in  the  world." 

Other  great  teachers  in  the  schools  and  in  the  univer- 
sities carried  forward  the  educational  work  begun  by  the 
great  reformers.  Many  cities  had  founded  schools,  and 
several  of  the  German  states  had  established  school  sys- 
tems. The  educational  ideas  of  the  Protestant  Reforma- 
tion had  taken  deep  root,  and  were  destined  to  spread 
over  the  whole  world,  gaining  in  force  with  each  succeeding 
century. 

The  practical  outcome  of  this  great  movement  was  the 


OTHER  PROTESTANT  EDUCATORS  185 

establishment  of  schools  in  every  village  in  Germany 
under  the  direction  of  the  pastor,  and  where  he  was  un- 
able to  teach,  under  his  clerk  or  assistant.  As  the  chief 
purpose  was  to  prepare  the  children  for  entrance  to  the 
church  by  confirmation,  religion  was  the  center  of  the 
school  course.  But  reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  and  sing- 
ing were  also  taught. 

The  clerk  of  the  church  gradually  became  the  school- 
master, and  while  the  relations  of  these  two  offices  have 
materially  changed,  there  is  still  a  close  official  connection 
between  the  two,  particularly  in  the  country.  In  many 
cases  the  pastor  is  the  local  superintendent  of  the  school, 
and  the  teacher  is  the  clerk  and  chorister  of  the  church. 
As  fast  as  Lutheran  churches  were  organized,  schools 
were  also  established  in  connection  with  them.  Nor  were 
boys  alone  included  in  the  work  of  education.  Girls' 
schools  were  organized  and  an  effort  was  made  at  universal 
education.  Many  provinces  adopted  advanced  school  laws, 
and  the  principle  of  compulsory  education  was  recognized, 
though  by  no  means  successfully  carried  out. 

Thus  was  born  in  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century 
the  common  school,  and  thus  was  recognized  the  right  of 
all  men  to  an  education,  and  a  practical  illustration  of  the 
means  of  securing  it  was  given  to  the  world. 


CHAPTER   XXX 

THE  JESUITS   AND   THEIR  EDUCATION 

Literature. — Draper,  Intellectual  Development  of  Europe;  Durrell, 
A  New  Life  in  Education;  Dyer,  Modern  Europe;  Fisher,  History 
of  the  Reformation ;  Guizot,  History  of  Civilization ;  Ferris,  Great 
Leaders  ;  Lord,  Beacon  Lights ;  Parkman,  The  Jesuits  in  North  Amer- 
ica ;  White,  Eighteen  Christian  Centuries ;  Quick,  Educational  Re- 
formers ;  Symonds,  Renaissance  in  Italy ;  Hughes,  Loyola ;  Lamed, 
History  for  Ready  Reference;  Schwickerath,  Jesuit  Education;  Chd- 
teaubriand,  The  Genius  of  Christianity. 


The  Order.  —  The  remarkable  spread  of  Protestantism, 
however,  was  not  to  go  on  unchallenged.  Already  before 
the  rupture  of  the  Church,  the  need  of  a  better-educated 
clergy  had  been  acknowledged.  We  have  seen  that  Luther 
and  the  Reformers  laid  great  stress  upon  the  education  of 
the  young  as  a  means  of  propagating  the  new  faith,  and 
they  had  employed  this  means  with  great  success.  It  is 
not  to  be  gathered  from  this  that  the  Roman  Church  had 
been  unmindful  of  her  duty  in  the  training  of  the  young. 
It  has  already  been  shown  that  the  Church  maintained 
education  from  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era  down 
through  the  Middle  Ages,  that  she  never  slackened  in  her 
zeal  for  this  work,  and  that  she  held  it  to  be  her  right  and 
duty,  as  she  does  to  this  day,  to  train  the  young.  At  this 
very  time  she  was  maintaining  many  schools.  But  the 
"Order  of  Jesus"  was  destined  to  systematize  education 
in  such  a  degree  as  the  Church  had  never  witnessed. 

It  has  been  claimed  that  the  founding  of  the  "  Society  of 
Jesus  "  was  a  "  Counter-Reformation,"  the  purpose  of  which 
was  to  check  the  growth  of  Protestantism.  Whatever  may 

1 86 


THE  JESUITS  AND   THEIR  EDUCATION          187 

have  been  the  effect  of  its  work  in  this  direction,  it  seems 
clear  that  such  was  not  the  purpose  for  which  it  was  or- 
ganized. Schwickerath  shows  that  it  is  doubtful  if  the 
founder  of  the  Jesuit  order  had  ever  heard  the  name  of 
the  German  Reformer.  He  says,1  "  The  Papal  Letters  and 
the  Constitutions  assign  as  the  special  object  of  the  Society: 
'  The  progress  of  souls  in  a  good  life  and  knowledge  of 
religion ;  the  propagation  of  faith  by  public  preaching,  the 
Spiritual  Exercises  and  works  of  charity,  and  particularly 
the  instruction  of  youth  and  ignorant  persons  in  the 
Christian  religion.'  "  It  cannot  be  denied,  whatever  the 
original  purpose  of  the  Society,  that  it  not  only  checked 
the  onward  march  of  Protestantism,  but  it  even  restored 
many  provinces  and  communities  to  their  fealty  to  the 
Mother  Church.  How  well  the  last  clause  of  the  admoni- 
tion above  quoted  was  carried  out  will  be  seen  when  we 
remember  that  the  Jesuits  originated  the  most  successful 
educational  system  of  the  sixteenth,  seventeenth,  and 
eighteenth  centuries,  a  system  having  a  definite  end  in 
view,  and  whose  adherents  by  indomitable  energy,  by  self- 
sacrifice,  by  oneness  of  purpose,  secured  remarkable  success. 
Let  us  turn  our  attention  to  the  founding  of  the  "  Order." 
Loyola  (1491-1556),  the  originator  of  the  order,  was  a 
Spanish  nobleman.  While  recovering  from  a  severe  wound 
received  in  battle,  he  read  some  religious  books  which  made 
such  a  profound  impression  upon  him  that  he  resolved  to 
consecrate  himself  to  religious  work.  Not  being  an  edu- 
cated man,  he  devoted  some  years  to  study,  and  while  at 
the  university  of  Paris  he  gathered  around  him  other  young 
men  who  also  were  ready  to  consecrate  themselves  to  the 
service  of  God.  They  formed  themselves  into  the  "  Order 
of  Jesus,"  with  the  avowed  purpose  at  first  of  rescuing 

1  "  Jesuit  Education,"  p.  77. 


1 88  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

Jerusalem  from  the  hands  of  the  infidels.  This  was  not  to 
be  done  by  force  of  arms,  as  in  case  of  the  crusaders,  but 
by  peaceful  means.  This  purpose  was  abandoned,  but  the 
zealous  missionary  spirit  of  the  Jesuits  endured.  In  1 540 
Pope  Paul  III.  recognized  the  new  order  and  gave  it  the 
sanction  of  the  Church.  The  organization  was  military  in 
character,  Loyola  becoming  its  first  general. 

The  Growth  of  the  Society  was  remarkable  from  the  outset. 
In  1600 it  had  200  schools;  in  1710,612  colleges,  157 board- 
ing or  normal  schools,  59  houses  for  novitiates,  340  resi- 
dences, 200  missions,  and  24  universities.  The  college  at 
Clermont  had,  in  1651,  2000  students,  and  in  1675,  3000 
students.  These  institutions  controlled  the  education  of  the 
Catholic  Church  in  all  Europe,  and  many  Protestant  young 
men  also  were  attracted  to  the  Jesuit  schools  by  their 
superior  teachers  and  their  thorough  training. 

The  society  became  so  strong  that  various  attempts 
were  made  to  check  its  power.  It  spread,  however,  to 
China  and  Hindustan,  to  the  Indian  tribes  of  North 
America,  and  to  South  America.  Its  spirit  and  its  prac- 
tices aroused  the  suspicion  of  princes  and  people,  of  many 
Catholics  as  well  as  Protestants.  In  1773  the  Jesuits  were 
in  possession  of  41  provinces,  and  had  22,589  members,  of 
whom  11,295  were  priests.  Since  that  time  popes  have 
suppressed  them,  rulers  have  expelled  them  from  their 
countries,  their  property  and  power  have  been  taken  from 
them,  until  their  influence  has  been  greatly  lessened  and 
their  progress  checked. 

Jesuit  Education.  —  Unlike  the  monastics,  the  Jesuits 
mingled  with  the  world;  they  assumed  no  peculiarities 
of  dress,  and  held  themselves  ready  to  act  as  mission- 
aries to  the  most  remote  parts  of  the  world,  as  agents  of 
the  Church  to  which  they  so  fully  consecrated  themselves, 


THE  JESUITS  AND   THEIR  EDUCATION          189 

and  as  teachers  of  youth.  They  established  schools  every- 
where, and  placed  them  in  charge  of  teachers  of  remark- 
able skill  and  pedagogical  training.1  We  have  seen  that 
their  efforts  were  chiefly  directed  to  higher  education,  their 
schools  being  designed  for  boys  not  less  than  fourteen 
years  of  age.  In  general,  primary  education  did  not  enter 
into  their  scheme.  Schwickerath  thinks  that  the  "  Jesuits 
could  not  undertake  elementary  education"  because  "they 
had  never  men  enough  to  supply  the  demands  for  higher 
education."2  This  shows  that  they  held  higher  education 
as  of  the  greater  importance,  and  the  same  author  further 
adds :  "  Besides,  the  whole  intellectual  training  of  the  Jesuits 
fitted  them  better  for  the  higher  branches."  They  reached 
sons  of  princes,  noblemen,  and  others  who  constituted  the 
influential  classes,3  but  "the  Constitutions  expressly  laid 
down  that  poverty  and  mean  extraction  were  never  to  be  any 
hindrance  to  a  pupil's  admission."4  Instruction  was  free. 

Their  schools  became  the  most  efficient  and  the  most 
popular  means  of  education  furnished  throughout  Europe, 
—  and  justly  so,  for  their  work  was  thorough,  their  teachers 
were  competent  and  well  trained,  and  their  course  of  study 
comprehensive.  It  is  worthy  of  especial  note  that  all 
teachers  of  the  Jesuit  schools  were  carefully  trained  before 
they  were  allowed  to  give  instruction.  This  is  the  first 
time  in  history  that  the  necessity  of  special  preparation  for 
the  work  of  teaching  was  recognized  as  an  essential  ele- 
ment in  the  work  of  education. 

Every  Jesuit  school  was  divided  into  two  departments, 

1  See   Hughes,   "Loyola,"   pp.   46,   113,   156,  282.     Also   Schwickerath, 
"Jesuit  Education,"  p.  415. 

2  "  Jesuit  Education,"  p.  105.     See  also  Hughes,  "  Loyola,"  pp.  4,  14,  43, 
46,  68,  72,  82,  and  86  (lines  12-23). 

8  See  Hughes,  "Loyola,"  pp.  72,  151.      *  "  Educational  Reformers,"  p.  26. 


190  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

the  lower,  studio,  inferiora,  consisting  of  five  classes,  and 
the  higher,  studio,  superiora,  requiring  two  or  three  years. 
Boys  were  admitted  to  the  lower  course  at  the  age  of  four- 
teen, and  the  work  consisted  chiefly  of  the  study  of  the 
humanities,  while  that  of  the  advanced  course  embraced 
philosophy  and  theology.1  With  reference  to  these  courses 
of  study,  Quick  says,  "The  Jesuit  system  stands  out  in 
the  history  of  education  as  a  remarkable  instance  of  a 
school  system  elaborately  thought  out  and  worked  as 
a  whole."  Again,  he  says  of  the  Ratio  Studiornm:*  "It 
points  out  a  perfectly  attainable  goal,  and  carefully  defines 
the  road  by  which  that  goal  is  to  be  approached.  For 
each  class  was  prescribed  not  only  the  work  to  be  done, 
but  also  the  end  to  be  kept  in  view."  Surely  these  are 
most  commendable  features  of  any  course  of  study.  The 
work  was  remarkably  thorough  in  every  detail. 

After  the  society  had  been  in  existence  some  forty 
years,  Claudius  Aquaviva  became  its  General  Superior. 
He  at  once  began  the  study 'of  the  educational  problem, 
using  all  the  resources  of  his  office  in  obtaining  informa- 
tion, and  employing  his  executive  ability  in  producing  an 
improved  method  of  study.  A  committee  of  twelve  most 
eminent  churchmen  was  appointed  in  1581  to  study  the 
question,  and  three  years  later  a  commission  of  six,  repre- 
senting different  countries,  began  the  labor  of  preparing  a 
course  of  study.  Their  work,  called  the  Ratio  Studiorum? 
completed  in  1599,  has  remained,  with  some  modifications, 
the  guide  of  Jesuit  institutions  of  learning. 

Emulation.  —  Emulation  was  employed  to  stimulate 
pupils  to  work  and  to  secure  good  conduct.  Prizes, 

1  K.  Schmidt,  Vol.  Ill,  p.  230.  2  "  Educational  Reformers,"  p.  34. 

8  See  Hughes,  "  Loyola,"  p.  141,  for  full  description  of  this  work  and  out- 
line of  the  couYse.  Also  Schwickerath,  "Jesuit  Education,"  p.  191. 


THE  JESUITS  AND   THEIR  EDUCATION          191 

decorations,  rewards,  titles,  were  offered  as  a  means 
of  attaining  desired  ends.  Emulation  is  a  natural  in- 
stinct in  mankind,  and  it  "may  be  utilized  to  stimulate 
endeavor  and  "foster  ambition."  The  principle  ever  to 
be  kept  in  mind  should  be  excellency  witJiout  degrading 
otJiers.  Schwickerath  thinks  that  such  was  the  spirit  in 
which  the  Jesuits  employed  this  incentive.1  He  admits, 
however,  that  there  are  dangers  connected  with  prizes, 
and,  on  the  whole,  that  certain  methods  of  fostering  emula- 
tion recommended  by  the  Ratio  Studiorum  are  less  suit- 
able to  northern  countries  and  less  in  accordance  with 
modern  taste. 

While  corporal  punishment  was  allowed,  it  was  generally 
administered  by  an  official  disciplinarian.  It  was  seldom 
used,  however,  the  discipline  being  mild  and  humane. 

Criticism  of  Jesuit  Education.  —  As  to  the  efficiency  of 
the  instruction  in  the  Jesuit  schools,  opinions  widely  differ. 
Bacon  and  Descartes  indorse  it  in  highest  terms,  while 
Leibnitz,  Voltaire,  and  others  are  equally  strong  in  its  con- 
demnation. Bacon  remarks,  "  As  to  whatever  relates  to 
the  instruction  of  the  young,  we  must  consult  the  schools 
of  the  Jesuits,  for  there  can  be  nothing  that  is  better  done." 
Leibnitz,  on  the  other  hand,  says,  "  In  the  matter  of  edu- 
cation, the  Jesuits  have  remained  below  mediocrity." 
Ranke,  in  speaking  of  the  success  of  the  Jesuit  schools, 
says,  "  It  was  found  that  young  persons  learned  more 
under  them  in  half  a  year  than  with  others  in  two  years." 

Mr.  Quick  says :  "I  have  said  that  the  object  which 
the  Jesuits  proposed  in  their  teaching  was  not  the  highest 
object.  They  did  not  aim  at  developing  all  the  faculties 
of  their  pupils,  but  merely  the  receptive  and  reproductive 
faculties.  When  the  young  man  had  acquired  a  thorough 
1  See  Hughes,  "Loyola,"  p.  511. 


192  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

mastery  of  the  Latin  language  for  all  purposes,  when  he 
was  well  versed  in  the  theological  and  philosophical  opinions 
of  his  preceptors,  when  he  was  skillful  in  dispute,  and  could 
make  a  brilliant  display  from  the  resources  of  a  well-stored 
memory,  he  had  reached  the  highest  point  to  which  the 
Jesuits  sought  .to  lead  him."1  Some  critics  of  the  Jesuits 
claim  that  they  lack  in  originality  of  thinking,  and  that 
they  neglect  training  in  the  power  of  forming  correct  judg- 
ments. They  have  produced,  however,  many  great  men. 

Summary.  —  Summarizing  the  educational  work  of  the 
Jesuits,  the  following  would  appear  to  us  to  be  just:  — 

1.  Their  educational  system  was  by  far  the  most  efficient 
and  successful  of  any  during  the  sixteenth,  seventeenth, 
and  eighteenth  centuries. 

2.  This,  however,  applies  only  to  higher  education,  as 
primary  education  was  not  undertaken  by  them. 

3.  They  made  their  schools  interesting,  and  learning 
pleasant.     Their  work  was  thorough,  their  consecration 
complete,  their  success  as  teachers  marvelous,  they  being 
the  greatest  schoolmasters  of  their  time. 

4.  They  produced  a  course  of  study,  the  Ratio  Studi- 
omm,  which  lays  principal  stress  upon  the  humanities  and 
religious  instruction. 

5.  They  taught  the  necessity  of  trained  teachers,  and 
developed  a  remarkable  power  and  tact  in  the  work  of 
instruction  and  school  management. 

6.  They  made  use  of  emulation  as  a  means  of  stimulating 
ambition,  —  a  principle   that  tends   to  arouse   the   baser 
motives,  and  which  is  therefore  to  be  used  guardedly. 

/•  They  were  indefatigable  in  missionary  enterprise, 
and  zealous  in  the  propagation  of  their  principles,  both 
religious  and  educational. 

1  "  Educational  Reformers,"  p.  35. 


THE  JESUITS  AND   THEIR   EDUCATION          193 

8.  They  stimulated  authorship,  advanced  learning,  and 
produced  many  great  men. 

9.  They  exerted  a  powerful  influence  upon  the  intellec- 
tual, social,  and  political  movements  of  their  time. 

THE   PORT   ROYALISTS 

Opposed  to  the  Jesuits  was  another  body  of  Catholics, 
sometimes  called  Jansenists  from  the  organizer  of  the  move- 
ment, and  sometimes  Port  Royalists,  because  their  chief 
school  was  at  Port  Royal  near  Paris.  Their  purpose  was 
to  check  the  progress  of  the  Jesuits,  to  promote  greater 
spirituality  in  the  Church,  and  to  revive  the  pure  Catholi- 
cism of  St.  Augustine.  Among  their  great  leaders  may  be 
mentioned  Pascal,  Nicole,  and  Launcelot.  The  purpose  of 
the  Jansenists  was  very  different  from  that  of  the  Jesuits, 
and  their  methods  were  more  modern.  They  gave  prefer- 
ence to  modern  languages,  while  the  Jesuits  gave  chief 
attention  to  the  classic  tongues.  Their  discipline,  like  that 
of  the  Jesuits,  was  humane,  but  firm. 

Their  greatest  contribution  to  education  is  the  phonic 
method  of  spelling.     They  also  laid  stress  upon  the  use  of 
objects,  the  development  of  the  sense  perceptions,  espe- 
cially in  early  childhood.     One  of  their  axioms  was,  "The 
intelligence  of  childhood  always  being  very  dependent  on 
the  senses,  we  must,  as  far  as  possible,  address  our  instruc- 
tion to  the  senses,  and  cause  it  to  reach  the  mind,  not 
only  through  hearing,  but  also  through   seeing."      This 
appears  to  be  the  first  instance  in  which  object  teaching  was 
taught  as  a  principle,  a  principle  which  Bacon,  Comenius, 
/  Pestalozzi,  and  Froebel  worked  out,  and  which  has  been  ,C 
•~f~one  of  the  most  important  factors  of  modern  educational 
*•  progress. 

HIST.   OF   ED. —  13 


CHAPTER   XXXI 

OTHER  EDUCATORS   OF  THE   SIXTEENTH  CENTURY 

Literature.  —  H.  M.  Skinner,  The  Schoolmaster  in  Literature,  The 
Schoolmaster  in  Comedy  and  Satire  ;  Gill,  Systems  of  Education  ; 
Quick,  Educational  Reformers ;  Williams,  History  of  Modern  Educa- 
tion ;  Besant,  Rabelais  ;  Monroe,  Educational  Ideal  ;  Collins,  Mon- 
taigne ;  Emerson,  Representative  Men  ;  Vogel,  Geschichte  der  Pada- 
gogik ;  Carlisle,  Two  Great  Teachers  (Ascham  and  Arnold)  ;  Azarias, 
Essays  Educational ;  Davidson,  History  of  Education. 


WE  have  thus  far  discussed  educators  who  were  di- 
rectly connected  with  the  great  Protestant  and  Catholic 
movements.  There  were  others  who  were  more  or  less 
independent  of  these  movements.  Among  these  we  may 
mention  Roger  Ascham,  Rabelais,  and  Montaigne. 

ASCHAM    (1515-1568) 

Roger  Ascham  was  the  most  celebrated  English  educa- 
tor of  the  sixteenth  century.  He  was  educated  at  Cam- 
bridge, and  studied  three  years  in  Germany.  He  had  a 
thorough  knowledge  of  the  classic  languages.  For  these 
reasons  he  was  chosen  tutor  to  Elizabeth,  a  position  which 
he  held  for  two  years.  Upon  her  accession  to  the  throne, 
Ascham  came  to  read  with  her  several  hours  a  day,  and 
she  retained  her  affection  for  her  old  teacher  throughout 
his  life. 

His  chief  literary  work  is  his  "  Scholemaster,"  which  is 
the  first  educational  classic  in  English.  Dr.  Johnson  says 
of  this  book,  "  It  contains,  perhaps,  the  best  advice  that 

194 


OTHER  EDUCATORS  OF  SIXTEENTH  CENTURY     195 

ever  was  given  for  the  study  of  languages."  This  method 
was  as  follows,  given  in  Ascham's  words :  "  First,  let  him 
teach  the  child,  cheerfully  and  plainly,  the  cause  and  mat- 
ter of  the  letter  (Cicero's  Epistles) ;  then,  let  him  construe 
it  into  English  so  oft  as  the  child  may  easily  carry  away 
the  understanding  of  it;  lastly,  parse  it  over  perfectly. 
This  done,  then  let  the  child  by  and  by  both  construe  and 
parse  it  over  again ;  so  that  it  may  appear  that  the  child 
doubteth  in  nothing  that  his  master  has  taught  him  before. 

"  After  this,  the  child  must  take  a  paper  book,  and  sit- 
ting in  some  place  where  no  man  shall  prompt  him,  by 
himself  let  him  translate  into  English  his  former  lesson. 
Then  showing  it  to  his  master,  let  the  master  take  from 
him  his  Latin  book,  and  pausing  an  hour  at  the  least,  then 
let  the  child  translate  his  own  English  into  Latin  again  in 
another  paper  book.  When  the  child  bringeth  it  turned 
into  Latin,  the  master  must  compare  it  with  Tully's  book, 
and  lay  them  both  together,  and  where  the  child  doth  well, 
praise  him,  where  amiss,  point  out  why  Tully's  use  is 
better. 

"Thus  the  child  will  easily  acquire  a  knowledge  of 
grammar,  and  also  the  ground  of  almost  all  the  rules  that 
are  so  busily  taught  by  the  master,  and  so  hardly  learned 
by  the  scholar  in  all  common  schools.  The  translation  is 
the  most  common  and  most  commendable  of  all  other  exer- 
cises for  youth ;  most  common,  for  all  your  constructions 
in  grammar  schools  be  nothing  else  but  translations  ;  but 
because  they  be  not  double  translations  (as  I  do  require), 
they  bring  forth  but  simple  and  single  commodity ;  and 
because  also  they  lack  the  daily  use  of  writing,  which  is 
the  only  thing  that  breedeth  deep  root,  both  in  the  wit  for 
good  understanding,  and  in  the  memory  for  sure  keeping  of 
all  that  is  learned;  most  commendable  also,  and  that  by 


196  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

the  judgment  of  all  authors  which  entreat  of  these  exer- 
cises."1 

Ascham  often  refers  to  his  illustrious  pupil  in  claim- 
ing merit  for  his  system.  He  says,  "  And  a  better  and 
nearer  example  herein  may  be  our  most  noble  Queen 
Elizabeth,  who  never  took  yet  Greek  nor  Latin  grammar 
in  her  hand  after  the  first  declining  of  a  noun  and  a  verb ; 
but  only  by  this  double  translating  of  Demosthenes  and 
Isocrates  daily,  without  missing,  every  forenoon,  and  like- 
wise some  part  of  Tully  every  afternoon,  for  the  space  of 
a  year  or  two,  hath  attained  to  such  a  perfect  understand- 
ing in  both  tongues,  and  to  such  a  ready  utterance  of  the 
Latin,  and  that  with  such  a  judgment  as  there  be  few  now 
in  both  universities,  or  elsewhere  in  England,  that  be  in 
both  tongues  comparable  with  her  Majesty."  Mr.  Quick 
thinks  that  while  Ascham  may  have  thus  flattered  his 
royal  pupil,  there  is  no  doubt  that  she  was  an  accom- 
plished scholar. 

We  have  seen  that  Sturm  made  some  use  of  double 
translation,  but  Ascham  is  entitled  to  full  credit  for  the 
method,  which  he  adopted  from  Pliny  and  perfected. 
Many  teachers  of  language  since  that  time  have  employed 
this  method  with  excellent  results. 

RABELAIS2   0483-1553) 

Though  there  is  some  obscurity  as  to  the  exact  date  of 
the  birth  of  Rabelais,  it  is  generally  believed  that  he  was 
born  the  same  year  as  Luther,  1483.  He  was  the  son  of  a 
French  innkeeper,  and,  after  completing  a  classical  course, 
was  consecrated  to  the  priesthood.  His  great  ability  and 

1  H.  M.  Skinner,  "  The  Schoolmaster  in  Literature,"  p.  20. 
3  For  special  reference  see  Besant's  "  Rabelais." 


OTHER  EDUCATORS  OF  SIXTEENTH  CENTURY      197 

independent  thinking,  and  his  humanistic  tendency  brought 
reproof  from  his  superiors,  and  he  was  ordered  to  perform 
works  of  penance  in  his  cell ;  but  through  the  influence 
of  powerful  friends  he  was  freed  and  allowed  to  go 
over  to  the  Benedictines,  with  whom,  however,  he  did 
not  remain  long.  He  became  an  independent  preacher, 
and  as  such  had  many  friends  among  the  reformers,  chief 
among  whom  was  Calvin.  His  intimacy  with  Calvin  led 
the  more  radical  reformers  to  be  suspicious  of  him,  and 
not  without  reason.  Walter  Besant  tells  us  that,  "  One 
hears  he  is  a  buffoon  —  he  is  always  mocking  and  always 
laughing.  That  is  perfectly  true.  He  laughs  at  the  pre- 
tensions of  pope,  cardinal,  bishop,  and  priest;  he  laughs 
at  monkery  and  monks ;  he  mocks  at  the  perpetual  itera- 
tion of  litanies ;  he  laughs  at  the  ignorance  and  supersti- 
tion which  he  thinks  are  about  to  vanish  before  the  new 
day  of  modern  learning."  1  Nor  was  his  sympathy  with 
the  reformers  any  more  marked.  Besant  further  adds, 
"  It  was  at  that  time  all  important  that,  as  in  England,  the 
scholars  should  range  themselves  on  the  Protestant  side. 
Rabelais  refused  to  do  this.  More,  he  set  an  example 
which  deterred  other  scholars,  and  kept  them,  in  sheer 
impatience,  in  the  enemy's  camp."2 

The  great  literary  work  of  Rabelais  is  embodied  in  a 
series  of  chronicles,  the  first  of  which  is  called  "  Gar- 
gantua"  and  the  second,  "  Pantagruel."  It  is  believed 
that  these  were  popular  names  of  giants  in  the  Middle 
Ages.  In  these  books  we  find  Rabelais's  pedagogy.3  The 
giant  Gargantua  attends  a  school  in  which  scholastic 
methods  are  employed.  The  author  skillfully  ridicules 
the  methods,  and  shows  the  utter  inefficiency  of  the 
instruction  by  contrasting  the  result  in  Gargantua  and 

1 "  Rabelais,"  192.    2  Ibid.,  193.    3  "  Schoolmaster  in  Comedy  and  Satire,"  9-33. 


198  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

Eudemon,  a  page  of  the  king.  Gargantua,  a  man  of  fifty- 
five,  is  introduced  to  Eudemon,  a  boy  of  twelve.  The  former 
is  awkward,  bashful,  and  does  not  know  what  to  say,  while 
the  latter  meets  Gargantua  cap  in  hand,  with  open  coun- 
tenance, ruddy  lips,  steady  eyes,  and  with  modesty  be- 
coming a  youth.  In  reply  to  the  polite  and  intelligent 
conversation  of  the  lad,  Gargantua  "  falls  to  crying  like  a 
cow,  casting  down  his  face,  and  hiding  it  with  his  cap." 
Compayre  says,  "  In  these  two  pupils,  so  different  in  man- 
ner, Rabelais  has  personified  two  contrasted  methods  of 
education  :  that  which,  by  mechanical  exercises  of  memory, 
enfeebles  and  dulls  the  intelligence ;  and  that  which,  with 
large  grants  of  liberty,  develops  intelligences  and  frank 
and  open  characters." 

The  deficiencies  of  the  old  education  (the  scholastic) 
being  thus  shown,  Rabelais  places  his  pupil  under  Ponoc- 
rates,  Eudemon's  teacher,  who  has  produced  such  practical 
results.  He  then  opens  up  his  system  of  pedagogy  in  the 
plan  pursued  for  the  redemption  of  Gargantua. 

Realism  in  Education.  —  Compayre's  estimate  of  this 
pedagogy  is  as  follows  :  "  The  pedagogy  of  Rabelais  is  the 
first  appearance  of  what  may  be  called  realism  in  instruc- 
tion, in  distinction  from  the  scholastic  formalism.  The 
author  of  '  Gargantua  '  turns  the  mind  of  the  young  man 
toward  objects  truly  worthy  of  occupying  his  attention. 
He  catches  a  glimpse  of  the  future  reserved  to  scientific 
education,  and  to  the  study  of  nature.  He  invites  the 
mind,  not  to  the  labored  subtleties  and  complicated  tricks 
which  scholasticism  had  brought  into  fashion,  but  to 
manly  efforts,  and  to  a  wide  unfolding  of  human  nature."  1 

In  comparing  Rabelais  with  Lucretius,  Walter  Besant 
says,  "  Both,  at  an  interval  of  fifteen  hundred  years,  antici- 

1  "History  of  Pedagogy,"  p.  91. 


OTHER  EDUCATORS  OF  SIXTEENTH  CENTURY      199 

pated  the  nineteenth  century  in  its  restless  discontent  of 
old  beliefs,  its  fearless  questioning,  its  advocacy  of  scien- 
tific research."  1  Compayre  thinks  that  Rabelais  is  "  cer- 
tainly the  first,  in  point  of  time,  of  that  grand  school  of 
educators  who  place  the  sciences  in  the  first  rank  among 
the  studies  of  human  thought."  2  It  would  seem,  then,  that 
the  author  of  "  Gargantua  "  is  worthy  of  a  most  honorable 
place  among  educational  writers.  Rabelais  began  a  move- 
ment, which  was  destined  to  revolutionize  educational 
methods. 

The  educational  scheme  of  Rabelais  embraced  the  study 
of  letters,  of  nature,  of  science,  of  morals  and  religion,  of 
the  physical  well-being,  — in  short,  of  everything  necessary, 
as  Herbert  Spencer  would  say,  to  complete  living. 

MONTAIGNE  3  (1533-1592) 

Of  a  very  different  character  from  Rabelais  was  Mon- 
taigne. Rabelais  was  radical  and  extravagant,  Montaigne 
conservative  and  discreet;  Rabelais  sought  development 
of  all  the  faculties  alike,  Montaigne  gave  preference  to 
the  training  of  the  judgment ;  Rabelais  would  thoroughly 
master  every  branch  of  human  knowledge,  Montaigne  was 
content  to  skim  over  the  sciences.  And  yet,  Montaigne 
must  be  recognized  as  an  important  factor  in  education, 
not  only  for  his  own  teachings,  but  because  undoubtedly 
Bacon,  Locke,  Rousseau,  and  other  apostles  of  reform 
were  greatly  influenced  by  him.  Bacon  furthered  Mon- 
taigne's theories  concerning  the  importance  of  science,  and 
by  his  inductive  method  rendered  the  world  a  far  greater 
service  than  his  great  French  contemporary.  Locke 

1  "  Rabelais,"  p.  187.  2  "  History  of  Pedagogy,"  p.  96. 

8  See  Collins,  "  Montaigne." 


200  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

enlarged  upon  Montaigne's  ideas  of  physical  training. 
Rousseau  accepted  a  vital  doctrine  of  Montaigne  in  the 
following  words :  "  He  (Emile)  possesses  a  universal 
capacity,  not  in  point  of  actual  knowledge,  but  in  the 
faculty  of  acquiring  it ;  an  open,  intelligent  genius  adapted 
to  everything,  and,  as  Montaigne  says,  if  not  instructed, 
capable  of  receiving  instruction." 

Montaigne's  father  was  a  French  nobleman,  who  fully 
appreciated  the  responsibility  laid  upon  him  in  the  educa- 
tion of  his  son.  Doubtless  his  training  had  much  to 
do  in  shaping  the  pedagogy  of  the  illustrious  son.  It  was 
wise,  mild  but  firm,  natural,  and  thorough.  The  tutors 
and  servants  who  surrounded  him  were  allowed  to  speak 
only  in  Latin.  That  tongue  thus  became  as  familiar  as 
his  native  tongue.  Indeed,  it  is  said,  that  at  the  age 
of  six  he  was  so  proficient  in  the  language  of  Cicero,  that 
the  best  Latinists  of  the  time  feared  to  address  him. 
Nor  was  his  knowledge  confined  to  Latin  alone.  He 
was  instructed  in  modern  lore  as  well.  At  the  age  of 
six  he  was  placed  in  the  college  of  Guienne,  where  he 
remained  seven  years.  His  experience  there,  so  contrary 
to  that  under  which  he  had  been  brought  up,  led  him  to 
be  utterly  opposed  to  corporal  punishment.  Of  the 
methods  of  discipline  employed  in  the  school,  he  says, 
"  The  discipline  of  most  of  our  colleges  has  always  dis- 
pleased me.  They  are  veritable  jails  in  which  youth  is 
held  prisoner.  The  pupils  are  made  vicious  by  being 
punished  before  they  become  so.  Pay  a  visit  there  when 
they  are  at  their  work  ;  you  will  hear  nothing  but  cries,  — 
children  under  execution,  and  masters  drunk  with  fury. 
What  a  mode  of  creating  in  these  tender  and  timid  souls 
an  appetite  for  their  lessons,  to  conduct  them  to  their 
tasks  with  a  furious  countenance,  rod  in  hand! — it  is  an 


OTHER  EDUCATORS  OF  SIXTEENTH  CENTURY      2OI 

iniquitous  and  pernicious  fashion.  How  much  more  be- 
coming it  would  be  to  see  the  classroom  strewed  with 
leaves  and  flowers  than  with  blood-stained  stumps  of  birch 
rods!  I. would  have  painted  up  there  scenes  of  joy  and 
merriment,  Flora  and  the  Grace's,  as  Speusippus  had  his 
school  of  philosophy  :  where  they  are  to  gain  profit,  there 
let  them  find  happiness  too.  One  ought  to  sweeten  all 
food  that  is  wholesome,  and  put  bitter  into  what  is  dan- 
gerous." * 

Here  we  find  a  strong  plea  for  humane  forms  of  punish- 
ment and  a  severe  criticism  of  the  prevailing  practice  of 
flogging,  a  practice  which  did  not  cease  until  long  after 
Montaigne's  time.  It  is  an  equally  forcible  plea  for 
beautiful  and  pleasant  schoolrooms,  decorated  with  works 
of  art  intended  to  awaken  and  cultivate  the  aesthetic 
sense  of  the  children,  while  contributing  to  their  happi- 
ness. It  has  been  left  to  the  educators  of  the  end  of  the 
nineteenth  century  to  take  up  and  seriously  act  upon  this 
suggestion  made  over  three  hundred  years  ago.  "  The 
purpose  of  education,"  said  Montaigne,  "  is  the  training, 
not  of  a  grammarian,  or  a  logician,  but  of  a  complete  gen- 
tleman." Education  should  be  of  a  practical  nature.  The 
child  must  become  familiar  with  the  things  about  him. 
He  must  learn  his  own  language  first  and  then  that  of 
his  neighbors,  and  languages  should  all  be  learned  by 
conversation. 

A  decided  weakness  in  his  system  is  found  in  his  ideas 
concerning  women.  He  made  no  provision  for  their  edu- 
cation, and,  indeed,  expressed  great  contempt  for  their  abili- 
ties of  either  mind  or  heart. 

Montaigne's  chief  literary  work  is  his  "  Essays."  Com- 
payre  pronounces  Montaigne's  pedagogy,  "  a  pedagogy  of 

1  Collins,  "  Montaigne,"  p.  14. 


202  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

good  sense,"  and  further  adds  that  he  has  "  remained,  after 
three  centuries,  a  sure  guide  in  the  matter  of  intellectual 
education." 

Observation  and  experience  were  to  be  abundantly  em- 
ployed, and  visits  to  other  lands,  together  with  intercourse 
with  intelligent  men  everywhere,  were  to  "  sharpen  our 
wits  by  rubbing  them  upon  those  of  others." 

To  sum  up,  we  may  say  that  the  pedagogy  of  Montaigne 
teaches  the  training  and  use  of  the  senses ;  the  study  of 
science ;  the  learning  of  the  mother  tongue  first  by  conver- 
sation, and  then  the  language  of  our  neighbors  with  whom 
we  come  in  contact ;  the  abolition  of  corporal  punishment, 
and  the  beautifying  of  schoolrooms.  This  surely  is  no 
small  contribution  to  education.  His  definition  of  education 
is  worthy  of  note.  He  says,  "  It  is  not  the  mind  only,  nor 
the  body,  but  the  whole  man  that  is  to  be  educated."  l 

Summary  of  Educational  Progress  during  the  Sixteenth 
Century. —  I.  Humanism  had  reached  its  climax  and  be- 
gun to  decline.  It  stimulated  invention  and  discovery ;  it 
revived  classic  literature  and  put  it  in  such  form  that  it 
could  be  used ;  it  emancipated  the  mind ;  it  prepared  the 
way  for  later  reforms ;  it  produced  great  educators  such  as 
Petrarch,  Erasmus,  and  Reuchlin. 

2.  The  Reformation  took  up  the  educational  work  of 
humanism,  and  carried  it  forward.  It  instituted  primary 
education,  the  education  of  the  masses,  compulsory  edu- 
cation and  parental  responsibility  therefor ;  it  asserted  the 
right  and  duty  of  the  State  to  demand  and  secure  universal 
education ;  it  elevated  and  gave  dignity  to  the  office  of 
teacher ;  it  formulated  several  school  systems,  and  laid  the 
foundation  of  the  present  German  school  system.  Among 

1  A  good  summary  of  Montaigne's  educational  ideas  may  be  found  in  Col- 
lins's  "  Montaigne,"  p.  IO2. 


OTHER  EDUCATORS  OF  SIXTEENTH  CENTURY      203 

its  great  educators  were  Luther,  Melanchthon,  Sturm,  and 
Neander. 

3.  The    Jesuits    established    a   remarkable    system    of 
schools,  noted  for  their  thoroughness,  for  their  singleness 
of  purpose,  for  their  rapid  growth,  and  for  their  trained 
teachers.     They  gave  little  attention  to  primary  education, 
but  sought  to  reach  the  higher  classes.     Emulation  was 
the  principal  incentive  employed. 

4.  Opposed  to  the  Jesuit  education  was  that  of  the  Port 
Royalists.     They  appealed  to  the  intelligence  of  the  chil- 
dren and  cultivated  the  sense-perceptions.     They  invented 
the  phonic  method  of  spelling. 

5.  Sturm's  celebrated  course  of  study  was  introduced 
during  this  century  at  Strasburg. 

6.  The  method  of  double  translations  in  learning  a  lan- 
guage was  taught  by  Ascham  and  Sturm. 

7.  In  Rabelais  we  find  the  first  appearance  of  realism, 
which  bore  rich  fruit  in  later  scientific  education. 

8.  Montaigne  opposed  the  use  of  the  rod,  and  taught 
that  the  schoolroom  should  be  made  attractive.     He  also 
advocated  the  study  of  modern  languages  by  conversation, 
and  gave  science  an  honorable  place  in  the  curriculum. 

It  thus  appears  that  the  sixteenth  century  surpassed 
many  previous  eras  in  its  contributions  to  educational 
progress. 


CHAPTER   XXXII 

EDUCATION  DURING  THE  SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY 

Literature.  —  Taylor,  History  of  Germany ;  Guisot,  History  of  Civili- 
zation ;  Schiller,  The  Thirty  Years'  War ;  Dyer,  Modern  Europe ; 
Lewis,  History  of  Germany ;  Macaulay,  History  of  England. 


Political  and  Historical  Conditions.  —  The  seventeenth 
century  was  remarkable  for  the  wars  for  religious  suprem- 
acy. The  Reformation  had  challenged  the  authority  of 
the  Church,  aroused  a  questioning  spirit,  and  instilled  into 
men's  minds  a  love  for  religious  liberty.  During  the  latter 
half  of  the  sixteenth  century,  Europe  had  swayed  back  and 
forth  between  Protestantism  and  Catholicism,  according  as 
success  in  arms  had  favored  one  side  or  the  other.  The 
spirit  of  Protestantism  had  taken  possession  more  espe- 
cially of  the  common  people,  who  formed  the  bone  and 
sinew  of  the  armies.  Bitter  animosities  existed  between 
the  adherents  of  the  papal  church  and  the  reformers,  which 
found  expression  in  bloodshed,  rapine,  and  destruction  of 
property. 

England  was  torn  asunder  by  civil  war,  which  resulted 
in  the  death  of  Charles  I.  and  the  establishment  of  the 
Commonwealth  under  Cromwell,  —  the  struggle  between 
Cavalier  and  Roundhead,  between  established  church  and 
Puritan,  ending  finally  in  the  revolution  of  1688.  The 
country  was  in  a  religious  ferment  during  the  greater  part 
of  this  century,  caused  by  a  growing  jealousy  for  the 

204 


EDUCATION  DURING  SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY    205 

maintenance  of  the  principle  of  the  right  to  worship  God 
according  to  the  dictates  of  one's  own  conscience.  Nor 
was  the  struggle  less  virulent  or  disastrous  in  continental 
Europe.  The  religious  upheaval  of  the  previous  century 
culminated  in  the  terrible  conflict  known  as  the  Thirty 
Years'  War;  this  lasted  from  1618  till  1648,  when  the 
Peace  of  Westphalia  secured  religious  liberty  to  all  men. 
Northern  Germany,  Austria,  France,  Holland,  Denmark, 
and  Sweden,  as  well  as  minor  countries,  were  involved  in 
this  great  war. 

Let  Bayard  Taylor  paint  the  result  of  this  fearful 
struggle.  "  Thirty  years  of  war !  The  slaughters  of 
Rome's  worst  emperors,  the  persecution  of  the  Chris- 
tians under  Nero  and  Diocletian,  the  invasions  of  the 
Huns  and  Magyars,  the  long  struggle  of  the  Guelfs 
and  Ghibellines,  left  no  such  desolation  behind  them. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  century,  the  population  of 
the  German  Empire  was  about  30,000,000 ;  when  the 
Peace  of  Westphalia  was  declared,  it  was  scarcely 
more  than  12,000,000!  Electoral  Saxony,  alone,  lost 
900,000  lives  in  two  years.  .  .  .  The  city  of  Berlin  con- 
tained but  300  citizens,  the  whole  of  the  Palatinate  of  the 
Rhine  but  200  farmers.  In  Hesse-Cassel,  17  cities,  47 
castles,  and  300  villages  were  entirely  destroyed  by  fire ; 
thousands  of  villages,  in  all  parts  of  the  country,  had  but 
four  or  five  families  left  out  of  hundreds,  and  landed  prop- 
erty sank  to  about  one  twentieth  of  its  former  value.  .  .  . 
The  horses,  cattle,  and  sheep  were  exterminated  in  many 
districts,  the  supplies  of  grain  were  at  an  end,  even  for 
sowing,  and  large  cultivated  tracts  had  relapsed  into  a 
wilderness.  Even  orchards  and  vineyards  had  been  wan- 
tonly destroyed  wherever  armies  had  passed.  So  terrible 
was  the  ravage  that,  in  a  great  many  localities,  the  same 


206  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION" 

amount  of  population,  cattle,  acres  of  cultivated  land,  and 
general  prosperity  was  not  restored  until  the  year  1848, 
two  centuries  afterward ! 

"  This  statement  of  the  losses  of  Germany,  however,  was 
but  a  small  part  of  the  suffering  endured.  .  .  .  During 
the  last  ten  or  twelve  years  of  the  war,  both  Protestants 
and  Catholics  vied  with  each  other  in  deeds  of  barbarity  ;  the 
soldiers  were  nothing  but  highway  robbers,  who  maimed  and 
tortured  the  country  people  to  make  them  give  up  their  last 
remaining  property.  ...  In  the  year  1637,  when  Ferdi- 
nand II.  died,  the  want  was  so  great  that  men  devoured 
each  other,  and  even  hunted  down  human  beings  like  deer 
or  hares,  in  order  to  feed  upon  them. 

"  In  character,  in  intelligence,  and  in  morality,  the  Ger- 
man people  were  set  back  two  hundred  years.  All  branches 
of  industry  had  declined,  commerce  had  almost  entirely 
ceased,  literature  and  the  arts  were  suppressed,  and  except 
the  astronomical  discoveries  of  Copernicus  and  Kepler, 
there  was  no  contribution  to  human  knowledge.  Even 
the  modern  High  German  language,  which  Luther  had 
made  the  classic  tongue  of  the  land,  seemed  to  be  on  the 
point  of  perishing.  Spaniards  and  Italians  on  the  Catholic, 
Swedes  and  French  on  the  Protestant  side,  flooded  the 
country  with  foreign  words  and  expressions,  the  use  of 
which  soon  became  an  affectation  with  the  nobility,  who 
did  their  best  to  destroy  their  native  tongue. 

"  Politically,  the  change  was  no  less  disastrous.  The 
ambition  of  the  house  of  Hapsburg,  it  is  true,  had  brought 
its  own  punishment ;  the  imperial  dignity  was  secured  to 
it,  but  henceforth  the  head  of  the  '  Holy  Roman  Empire ' 
was  not  much  more  than  a  shadow.  .  .  .  As  for  the  mass 
of  the  people,  their  spirit  was  broken  ;  for  a  time  they 
gave  up  even  the  longing  for  the  rights  which  they  had 


EDUCATION  DURING  SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY    2O/ 

lost,  and  taught  their  children  abject  obedience  in  order 
that  they  might  simply  live."  l 

The  Educational  Situation.  —  These  political  conditions 
had  a  marked  influence  upon  education.  Schools  were 
abandoned,  colleges  gave  up  their  charters,  and  people 
were  content  to  allow  their  children  to  grow  up  in  ignorance. 
Indeed,  it  was  not  to  be  expected  that,  in  the  midst  of  their 
poverty  and  sorrow,  parents  should  care  for  education. 
And  yet,  some  most  important  and  wise  school  laws  were 
enacted  and  put  into  force,  which  form  the  basis  of  the 
present  German  school  system,  as  well  as  the  school  systems 
of  many  other  countries.  In  1619  the  Duke  of  Weimar 
decreed  that  all  children,  girls  as  well  as  boys,  should  be 
kept  in  school  for  at  least  six  years,  —  from  six  to  twelve. 
This  is  the  first  efficient  compulsory  education  law  on  record 
intended  for  all  classes  of  children. 

Besides  Weimar,  Wiirtemberg,  Hesse-Darmstadt,  Meck- 
lenburg, Holstein,  Hesse-Cassel,  and  other  provinces  were 
active  in  school  work.  They  organized  schools,  appointed 
teachers,  and  formulated  school  regulations.  In  1642, 
Duke  Ernst  of  Gotha  adopted  a  new  school  regulation 
which  was  a  century  in  advance  of  the  time,  and  this  ac- 
tion was  taken  when  the  Thirty  Years'  War  was  at  its 
height  and  in  a  territory  sadly  devastated  by  contending 
armies. 

This  law  required  every  child  to  enter  school  at  the  be- 
ginning of  his  sixth  year,  and  to  remain  in  school  until  he 
could  read  his  mother  tongue,  had  mastered  Luther's  cate- 
chism, and  was  well  grounded  in  arithmetic,  writing,  and 
church  songs.  A  course  of  study  was  marked  out,  the 
schools  were  graded,  and  methods  of  instruction  were  out- 
lined. The  greatest  defect  in  the  system  was  the  lack  of 

1  "  History  of  Germany,"  p.  409. 


208  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

competent  teachers.  Discharged  soldiers,  worthless  stu- 
dents, and  degraded  craftsmen  who  could  read  and  write, 
and  who  possessed  a  little  knowledge  of  music,  continued 
for  many  years  to  be  employed  as  schoolmasters.  But  little 
progress  could  be  made  under  these  adverse  circumstances ; 
and  the  only  reason  for  encouragement  was  the  fact  that 
the  duty  of  parents  to  keep  their  children  at  school  was 
everywhere  recognized. 

The  Innovators.  —  We  must  here  mention  also  the  In- 
novators or  Reformers,  whose  period  of  educational  activ- 
ity falls  chiefly  within  the  seventeenth  century.  Among 
these  appear  the  names  of  Francis  Bacon,  Ratke, 
Milton,  Comenius,  Rollin,  Fe"nelon,  and  Locke.  These 
men  started  movements  which  revolutionized  education 
and  laid  the  foundation  of  modern  methods.  The  de- 
mands of  the  Reformers  are  summed  up  by  Quick  as 
follows:  "  First,  that  the  study  of  things  should  precede,  or 
be  united  with,  the  study  of  words ;  second,  that  knowledge 
should  be  communicated,  where  possible,  by  appeal  to  the 
senses ;  third,  that  all  linguistic  study  should  begin  with  that 
of  the  mother  tongue ;  fourth,  that  Latin  and  Greek  should 
be  taught  to  such  boys  only  as  would  be  likely  to  complete 
a  learned  education ;  fifth,  that  physical  education  should 
be  attended  to  in  all  classes  of  society  for  the  sake  of 
health,  not  simply  with  a  view  to  gentlemanly  accomplish- 
ments ;  sixth,  that  a  new  method  of  teaching  should  be 
adopted,  framed  '  According  to  nature.'  " 1  In  another 
chapter  we  shall  study  the  life  and  work  of  some  of  these 
men. 

1  Quick,  "  Educational  Reformers,"  p.  50. 


CHAPTER   XXXIII 

EDUCATORS   OF  THE  SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY 

Literature.  —  Church,  Bacon  ;  Macaulay,  Essays  ;  Spofford,  Library 
of  Historical  Characters ;  Lord,  Beacon  Lights ;  Montagu,  Life  of 
Bacon;  Barnard,  English  Pedagogy;  Quick,  Educational  Reformers; 
Williams,  History  of  Modern  Education ;  Laurie,  Life  and  Works  of 
Comenius  ;  Comenius,  Orbis  Pictus  ;  Barnard,  Journal  of  Education  ; 
Milton,  Tractate  on  Education ;  Pattison,  Milton ;  Fowler,  Locke ; 
Leitch,  Practical  Educationists ;  Gill,  Systems  of  Education ;  Schiveg- 
ler,  History  of  Philosophy ;  Courtney,  John  Locke ;  Vogel,  Geschichte 
der  Padagogik ;  Compayre,  History  of  Pedagogy ;  Fenelon,  Education 
of  Girls ;  Azarias,  Philosophy  of  Literature ;  Monroe,  Comenius. 


BACON1    (1561-1626) 

BUT  little  is  known  of  the  early  years  of  Francis  Bacon, 
but  it  is  probable  that  he  was  well  trained,  as  his  father 
was  a  man  of  good  education,  and  the  boy  was  able  to  enter 
Cambridge  when  only  a  little  over  twelve  years  of  age. 
His  father  was  for  many  years  Lord  Keeper  of  the  Seals, 
and  this  brought  Francis  in  contact  with  court  life,  where 
his  precocity  made  him  a  favorite  with  the  queen.  He 
thus  early  acquired  that  taste  for  the  court,  by  which  he 
climbed  to  the  height  of  his  ambition  only  to  fall  there- 
from in  ignominious  defeat. 

He  remained  at  Cambridge  only  about  three  years. 
Lord  Macaulay  sums  up  the  result  of  Bacon's  university 
experience  in  the  following  words :  "  Bacon  departed, 
carrying  with  him  a  profound  contempt  for  the  course  of 
study  pursued  there,  a  fixed  conviction  that  the  system  of 

1  For  special  reference  see  Macaulay's  "  Essays,"  Vols.  II  and  III. 
HIST.   OF  ED.  —  14  209 


210  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

academic  education  in  England  was  radically  vicious,  a 
just  scorn  for  the  trifles  on  which  the  followers  of  Aristotle 
had  wasted  their  powers,  and  no  great  reverence  for 
Aristotle  himself."1 

Some  think  that  thus  early,  while  not  yet  fifteen  years  of 
age,  Bacon  began  to  formulate  that  inductive  system  which 
made  him  a  great  benefactor  of  the  human  race.  There 
seems  to  be  but  little  proof  of  this ;  and,  if  it  be  so,  he 
laid  it  aside  until  near  the  close  of  his  life,  and  devoted 
himself  to  politics.  After  leaving  Cambridge,  he  went 
abroad  with  the  English  ambassador  at  Paris,  with  whom 
he  served  until  the  death  of  his  father  compelled  his 
return  to  England.  Unexpectedly  finding  that  his  patri- 
mony was  gone,  he  began  a  career  at  the  bar,  and  rose 
step  by  step,  amid  many  discouragements,  until  he  reached 
the  height  of  his  ambition,  the  Lord  High  Chancellorship 
of  the  realm.  In  reaching  this  position  he  resorted  to 
many  of  the  tricks  of  the  politician,  and  sacrificed  his  best 
friends  to  further  his  selfish  interests.  Concerning  his 
actions  toward  his  benefactor,  Essex,  Macaulay  says,  "  This 
friend,  so  loved,  so  trusted,  bore  a  principal  part  in  ruining 
the  earl's  fortunes,  in  shedding  his  blood,  and  in  blacken- 
ing his  memory.  But  let  us  be  just  to  Bacon.  We  believe 
that,  to  the  last,  he  had  no  wish  to  injure  Essex.  Nay, 
we  believe  that  he  sincerely  wished  to  serve  Essex,  as 
long  as  he  could  serve  Essex  without  injuring  himself."2 
Such  seeming  mitigation  of  Bacon's  ingratitude  serves  only 
to  bring  the  Lord  Chancellor's  cowardice  more  completely 
to  light. 

This  lack  of  principle  and  greed  for  office,  together  with 
the  luxurious  tastes  which  kept  Bacon  constantly  in  debt, 
made  him  susceptible  to  corruption.  Accordingly  he  ac- 

i  «  Essays,"  Vol.  Ill,  p.  354.  2  Ibid.,  Vol.  Ill,  p.  368. 


EDUCATORS  OF  THE  SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY    211 

cepted  bribes ;  and,  when  exposed,  his  degradation  from 
the  highest  office  under  the  crown  was  most  complete  and 
humiliating.  He  was  summoned  before  the  bar  of  Parlia- 
ment ;  and,  finding  the  evidence  against  him  complete,  he 
admitted  his  guilt  and  pleaded  for  clemency.  These  are 
the  words  of  his  confession,  "  Upon  advised  consideration 
of  the  charges,  descending  into  my  own  conscience  and 
calling  upon  my  memory  to  account  so  far  as  I  am  able, 
I  do  plainly  and  ingenuously  confess  that  I  am  guilty  of 
corruption,  and  do  renounce  all  defense." 

He  was  found  guilty  and  condemned  to  imprisonment  in 
the  Tower  during  the  pleasure  of  the  king,  and  to  a  fine  of 
,£40,000  ;  he  was  forbidden  ever  to  sit  in  Parliament  or  come 
within  the  verge  of  the  court,  and  was  forever  debarred 
from  holding  office.  He  never  paid  the  fine,  was  released 
from  the  Tower  after  two  days,  was  permitted  to  visit  the 
court,  and  was  summoned  to  the  meetings  of  Parliament.1 
He  never,  however,  took  any  part  in  public  affairs.  The 
king  granted  him  a  pension  upon  which  he  lived  the  re- 
mainder of  his  days.  Thus  disappeared  from  public  life 
one  of  England's  greatest  statesmen,  whose  political  career 
ended  in  disgrace.  But  during  the  remaining  six  years  of 
his  life,  he  wrote  his  principal  works,  which  made  him 
famous  for  all  time,  and  which  mark  a  new  era  in  educa- 
tion as  well  as  in  the  world's  progress. 

In  1620  his  greatest  work,  the  "  Novum  Organum," 
was  published.  In  this  appears  his  Inductive  Method,  a 
great  educational  discovery,  which  has  been  of  inesti- 
mable value  to  mankind.  It  revolutionized  science,  and 
suggested  the  application  of  the  forces  of  nature  to 

1  For  a  full  description  of  his  trial  consult  Macaulay's  "Essays."  Also 
his  biographer,  Montagu,  whose  judgment  of  Bacon  is  much  milder  than 
Macaulay's. 


212  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

the  wants  of  man,  thus  opening  to  man's  enterprise  an 
illimitable  field  for  research.  In  the  three  centuries 
since  Bacon's  discovery,  science  has  made  vast  strides, 
and  yet  is  only  at  the  threshold  of  its  possible  develop- 
ment. The  watchwords  of  the  inductive  method — experi- 
ment, investigate,  verify  —  have  led  to  the  establishment 
of  laboratories,  to  the  founding  of  experimenting  stations, 
and  to  the  study  of  Nature  herself.  As  Macaulay  puts 
it,  "  Two  words  form  the  key  jof  the  Baconian  doctrine, 
Utility  and  Progress."  Again  he  says,  "  The  philosophy  of 
Plato  began  in  words  and  ended  in  words.  .  .  .  The  phi- 
losophy of  Bacon  began  in  observation  and  ended  in  arts." 1 

Macaulay  depreciates  the  work  of  Bacon,  and  shows 
that  he  was  not  the  original  inventor  of  the  inductive 
method,  "which,"  he  says  with  truth,  "has  been  prac- 
ticed ever  since  the  beginning  of  the  world  by  every 
human  being." 2  Nor  was  he  the  "  first  person  who 
correctly  analyzed  that  method  and  explained  its  uses," 
as  Aristotle  had  done  so  long  before.  But  these  facts  do 
not  detract  from  the  glory  of  Bacon  any  more  than  the 
discovery  of  America  by  the  Norsemen  five  hundred  years 
before  the  time  of  Columbus  detracts  from  his  glory. 
The  same  process  of  reasoning  would  take  all  credit 
from  every  philosopher  that  has  ever  lived,  for  with 
equal  truth  it  may  be  said  that  every  mental  process 
"  has  been  practiced  ever  since  the  beginning  of  the 
world  by  every  human  being." 

Bacon's  teachings  resemble  those  of  Montaigne, 
though  Bacon's  work  was  far  more  important  and  com- 
plete than  that  of  his  French  contemporary.  His  peda- 
gogy may  be  summed  up  in  these  pregnant  words  from 
his  own  pen :  "  A  judicious  blending  and  interchange 
i  "  Essays,"  Vol.  Ill,  p.  459.  2  Ibidn  Voi.  m,  p.  47O. 


EDUCATORS  OF  THE  SEVENTEENTH  CP^NTURY    213 

between  the  easier  and  more  difficult  branches  of  learn- 
ing, adapted  to  the  individual  capabilities  and  to  the 
future  occupation  of  pupils,  will  profit  both  the  mental 
and  bodily  powers,  and  make  instruction  acceptable." 

We  find  in  Bacon,  then,  the  beginning  of  a  new  era 
in  education.  It  remained  for  Comenius,  Locke,  Rous- 
seau, Pestalozzi,  and  their  compeers  to  apply  to  specific 
educational  systems  the  great  truth  contained  in  the  in- 
ductive method ;  and  to  scientists  and  investigators  of  all 
kinds  has  been  intrusted  the  mission  of  furthering,  through 
this  method,  the  marvelous  scientific  development  which 
has  almost  re-created  the  world. 


RATKE1  (1571-1635) 

Perhaps  the  first  to  urge  the  reforms  which  constitute 
the  basis  of  educational  theory  was  Ratke,  a  German, 
born  in  the  province  of  Holstein.  He  originated  a  scheme 
by  which  he  promised  to  teach  any  language,  ancient  or 
modern,  in  six  months.  He  traveled  throughout  Europe, 
endeavoring  to  sell  his  discovery  to  princes  and  men  of 
learning.  Purchasers  had  to  agree  strictly  to  maintain  the 
secret.  Professor  Williams  speaks  of  this  conduct  as  fol- 
lows :  "  These  were  the  acts  of  a  charlatan  peddling  some 
secret  quack  nostrum." 2  Mr.  Quick  says,  "  He  would 
also  found  a  school  in  which  all  arts  and  sciences  should 
be  rapidly  learned  and  advanced  ;  he  would  introduce,  and 
peacefully  maintain  throughout  the  continent,  a  uniform 
speech,  a  uniform  government,  and,  more  wonderful  still, 
a  uniform  religion.  From  these  modest  proposals  we 

1  Also  Rateke,   Radtke,  and  Ratich.      Paulsen  pronounces  the  last  "  an 
abominable  mutilation  of  Latinization." 

2  "  History  of  Modern  Education,"  p.  141. 


214  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

should  naturally  infer  that  the  promiser  was  nothing  but 
a  quack  of  more  than  usual  impudence ;  but  the  position 
which  the  name  of  Ratich  holds  in  the  history  of  educa- 
tion is  sufficient  proof  that  this  is  by  no  means  a  complete 
statement  of  the  matter."  1 

Many  thinkers  fully  believed  that  the  schools  were  in 
bondage  to  the  classic  studies,  that  they  did  not  prepare 
for  life,  and  that  science,  which  had  begun  to  show  signs 
of  awakening,  should  have  a  place  in  education.  The  ex- 
travagant theories  of  Ratke,  therefore,  attracted  attention. 
Opportunity  was  given  him  to  put  his  theories  into  practice, 
first  at  Augsburg,  then  at  Kothen,  and  finally  at  Magde- 
burg. In  each  instance  he  utterly  failed,  more  from  want 
of  tact  in  dealing  with  men,  —  with  those  in  authority,  as 
well  as  with  his  teachers  and  pupils,  —  than  from  lack  of 
soundness  in  theory.  Of  course  much  of  his  theory  was 
worthless,  especially  that  referring  to  the  mastery  of  a  lan- 
guage in  six  months,  and  that  proposing  uniformity  in 
speech,  government,  and  religion. 

Ratke's  method  of  teaching  a  language  was  not  original 
with  him,  being  similar  to,  though  not  so  effective  as,  that 
advocated  by  Roger  Ascham,  more  than  a  hundred  years 
before  (see  p.  191),  and  suggested  first  by  Pliny,  fifteen 
centuries  earlier.  Ratke  required  the  pupil  to  go  over 
the  same  matter  many  times,  to  learn  the  grammar  in 
connection  with  translation,  and  finally  to  translate  back 
into  the  original  He  proposed  to  follow  the  same  course 
with  all  languages,  and  have  all  grammars  constructed  on 
the  same  plan. 

The  work  which  Ratke  began  was  more  successfully  car- 
ried out  by  others  who  followed  him,  and  thus  fruit  has 
been  borne  to  these  new  and  radical  ideas. 

1  Quick,  "  Educational  Reformers,"  p.  51. 


EDUCATORS  OF  THE  SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY    21$ 

Quick  sums  up  Ratke's  pedagogy  in  a  few  words,  as 
follows : 1  — 

1.  Everything  after  the  order  and  course  of  nature. 

2.  One  thing  at  a  time. 

3.  One  thing  again  and  again  repeated. 

4.  Nothing  shall  be  learned  by  heart. 

5.  Uniformity  in  all  things. 

6.  Knowledge  of  the  thing  itself  must  be  given  before 
that  which  refers  to  the  thing. 

7.  Everything  by  experiment  and  analysis. 

8.  Everything  without   coercion ; 2    that    is,    by   gentle 
means,  and  not  by  the  use  of  the  rod. 

Others  have  worked  out  these  principles  until  they  have 
become  thoroughly  incorporated  into  every  system  of 
modern  pedagogy. 


COMENIUS2    (1592-1670) 

By  far  the  greatest  educator  of  the  seventeenth  century, 
and  one  of  the  greatest  in  educational  history,  was  Johann 
Amos  Comenius.  He  was  born  in  Moravia,  and  belonged 
to  the  Protestant  body  known  as  the  Moravian  Brethren. 
His  early  education  was  neglected,  a  fact  that  was  not 
without  its  compensation,  for,  not  beginning  the  study  of 
Latin  until  sixteen  years  of  age,  he  was  mature  enough  to 
appreciate  the  defects  in  the  prevalent  method  of  instruc- 
tion. One  of  his  most  valuable  services  to  education  grew 
out  of  his  attempt  to  remedy  the  defects  thus  discovered. 

Of  the  schools  he  attended,  he  says,  "  They  are  the 
terror  of  boys,  and  the  slaughterhouses  of  minds,  —  places 

1  "  Educational  Reformers,"  p.  53.  2  Especial  attention  is  called  to 

Laurie's  "  Life  of  Comenius,"  and  Monroe's  "  Comenius."     For  other  works, 
see  Appendix  of  Bardeen's  edition  of  Laurie's  "  Comenius." 


2l6  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

where  a  hatred  of  books  and  literature  is  contracted, 
where  ten  or  more  years  are  spent  in  learning  what  might 
be  acquired  in  one,  where  what  ought  to  be  poured  in 
gently  is  violently  forced  in,  and  beaten  in,  where  what 
ought  to  be  put  clearly  and  perspicuously  is  presented  in 
a  confused  and  intricate  way,  as  if  it  were  a  collection  of 
puzzles,  —  places  where  minds  are  fed  on  words."  J 

In  speaking  of  his  own  experience  at  school,  he  says, 
"  I  was  continually  full  of  thoughts  for  the  finding  out  of 
some  means  whereby  more  might  be  inflamed  with  the 
love  of  learning,  and  whereby  learning  itself  might  be 
made  more  compendious,  both  in  the  matter  of  charge 
and  cost,  and  of  labor  belonging  thereto,  that  so  the  youth 
might  be  brought  by  a  more  easy  method  unto  some  nota- 
ble proficiency  in  learning."2 

The  life  of  Comenius,  which  extended  over  nearly  eighty 
years,  was  full  of  vicissitudes  and  trials.  Briefly  told,  it 
is  as  follows :  He  was  left  an  orphan  at  an  early  age,  had 
poor  educational  advantages  in  childhood,  began  the  study 
of  Latin  at  sixteen,  and  completed  his  studies  at  Heidel- 
berg at  twenty-two,  having  previously  studied  at  Herborn. 
After  leaving  the  university,  he  was  teacher  of  the  Mora- 
vian School  at  Prerau  for  two  years,  and  then  having  been 
ordained  to  the  ministry,  became  pastor  of  Fulnek.  Here 
he  remained  for  a  number  of  years,  living  a  happy  and 
useful  life.  In  the  meantime,  the  Thirty  Years'  War  had 
broken  out,  the  battle  of  Prague  had  been  lost  by  the 
Protestants,  and  the  town  of  Fulnek  sacked.  Comenius 
lost  everything  he  possessed,  and  this  misfortune  was  soon 
followed  by  the  death  of  his  wife  and  child.  After  hiding 
in  the  mountains  for  some  time,  he  was  banished  from  his 
native  land,  together  with  all  the  other  Protestants.  This 

1  Laurie,  "  Life  of  Comenius,"  p.  14.         2  Preface  to  the  "  Prodromus." 


EDUCATORS  OF  THE  SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY 

took  place  in  1627,  when  Comenius  was  thirty-five  years 
old.  Though  he  often  longed  to  return  to  his  fatherland, 
he  was  never  permitted  to  do  so. 

He  settled  in  Poland,  and  began  by  the  study  of  the 
works  of  Ratke,  Bacon,  and  other  writers  to  prepare  him- 
self for  the  great  task  of  educational  reform.  Of  this 
experience  he  writes,  "  After  many  workings  and  tossings 
of  my  thoughts,  by  reducing  everything  to  the  immovable 
laws  of  nature,  I  lighted  upon  my  '  Didactica  Magna,'  which 
shows  the  art  of  readily  and  solidly  teaching  all  men  all 
things." 

He  visited  England,  Sweden,  and  Hungary  in  the  in- 
terests of  education,  and  was  invited  to  France,  but  did 
not  accept  the  invitation.  While  living  at  Leszno,  Poland, 
for  a  second  time  his  house  was  sacked  and  all  his  prop- 
erty destroyed.  Among  other  things,  his  work  onPan- 
j'  sophia,  and  his  Latin-Bohemian  dictionary,  on  which  he 
had  labored  for  forty  years,  were  burned.  He  closed  his 
days  at  Amsterdam,  Holland.  In  addition  to  the  great 
honors  bestowed  upon  him  by  the  various  countries  that 
sought  his  advice  on  educational  matters,  he  was  made  the 
chief  bishop  and  head  of  the  Moravian  Brethren.  Raumer 
forcibly  sums  up  the  life  of  Comenius  as  follows :  "  Come- 
nius is  a  grand  and  venerable  figure  of  sorrow.  Though 
wandering,  persecuted,  and  homeless,  during  the  terrible 
and  desolating  Thirty  Years'  War,  yet  he  never  despaired, 
but  with  enduring  courage,  and  strong  faith,  labored 
unweariedly  to  prepare  youth  by  a  better  education  for  a 
happier  future.  Suspended  from  the  ministry,  as  he  him- 
self tells  us,  and  an  exile,  he  became  an  apostle  to  the 
Christian  youth ;  and  he  labored  for  them  with  a  zeal  and 
love  worthy  of  the  chief  of  the  apostles."  1 

1  Raumer,  "  Geschichte  der  Padagogik." 


218  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

Pedagogical  Work.  —  The  great  educational  works  of 
Comenius  are  his  "  Gate  of  Tongues  Unlocked,"  the  "  Great 
Didactic,"  and  his  "  Orbis  Pictus."  Mr.  Quick  thinks  that 
the  "  Great  Didactic  "  "  contains,  in  the  best  form,  the  prin- 
ciples he  afterward  endeavored  to  work  out  "  1  in  his  other 
educational  writings.  "  The  services  of  Comenius  to  peda- 
gogy," says  Professor  Williams,  "  were  of  a  threefold  char- 
acter, in  each  of  which  his  merit  was  very  great.  First, 
he  was  the  true  originator  of  the  principles  and  methods 
of  the  Innovators.  Second,  he  was  a  great  educational 
systematist.  Third,  he  was  the  author  of  improved  text- 
books, which  were  long  and  widely  famous."2  This  is  a 
fair  summing  up  of  the  remarkable  activity  of  this  man 
with  the  exception  of  the  first  point.  Montaigne,  Ratke, 
and  Bacon  had  previously  taught  many  of  the  fundamental 
truths  which  Comenius  merely  amplified  and  brought  to 
practical  fruition,  and  he  himself  acknowledged  the  influ- 
ence of  the  last  two  men  upon  him.  That  the  whole 
purpose  of  the  life  of  Comenius  was  far  nobler  than  that 
of  Ratke  or  Bacon,  there  remains  no  room  for  doubt. 
Compayr6  says,  "  The  character  of  Comenius  equals  his 
intelligence.  Through  a  thousand  obstacles  he  devoted 
his  long  life  to  the  work  of  popular  instruction.  With  a 
generous  ardor  he  consecrated  himself  to  infancy.  He 
wrote  twenty  works  and  taught  in  twenty  cities.  More- 
over, he  was  the  first  to  form  a  definite  conception  of  what 
the  elementary  studies  should  be."3 

Bacon  gave  the  inspiration  and  Comenius  worked  the 
truth  into  practical  form ;  Bacon  invented  a  new  theory  of 
scientific  investigation,  Comenius  employed  that  theory  in 

1  "  Educational  Reformers,"  p.  73. 

2  "History  of  Modern  Education,"  p.  151. 
8  "  History  of  Pedagogy,"  p.  122. 


EDUCATORS  OF  THE  SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY    219 

education  ;  Bacon  originated  and  Comenius  app^d.  This 
does  not  detract  from  the  merit  of  Comenius  any  more 
than  his  work  detracts  from  the  merit  of  Rousseau,  Pesta- 
lozzi,  or  Horace  Mann,  all  of  whom  gathered  inspiration 
from  him. 

Summary  of  the  Work  of  Comenius.  —  (i)  He  was  the 
author  of  the  .first  illustrated  jtej&&Qak^.th5  "  QrVn'c  PiV. 
tus."  A  The  cost  of  illustrations  was  for  a  long  time  a 
serious  barrier  to  their  general  adoption  in  schoolbooks ; 
but  modern  inventions  and  improvements  have  removed 
this  obstacle,  and  many  of  the  text-books  of  to-day  are 
as  valuable  for  their  illustrations  as  for  their  text.  The 
"  Orbis  Pictus"  appeared  in  1658. 

(2)  In  his  "  Great  Didactic,"  he  presents  a  scheme  for 
general  organization  of  the  school  system  which  covers 
the  first  twenty-four  years  of  life.  It  divides  this  time  into 
four  equal  periods  of  six  years,  each  as  follows  :  — 

1.  Infancy,  or  the  mother  school,  from  birth  up  to  six 
years  of  age. 

2.  Boyhood,  the  vernacular  or  national  school,  from  six 
to  twelve. 

3.  Adolescence,  the    Gymnasium  or  Latin  school,  from 
twelve  to  eighteen. 

4.  Youth,  the  university  (including  travel),  from  eighteen 
to  twenty-four. 

"  The  infant  school  should  be  found  in  every  house,  the 
vernacular  school  in  every  village  and  community,  the 
gymnasium  in  every  province,  and  the  university  in  every 
kingdom  or  large  province."  This  scheme,  with  variation 
of  details,  forms  the  basis  of  present  school  systems : 
first,  the  period  in  the  home  with  the  mother  till  six ; 

1  See  "  Orbis  Pictus,"  edited  and  published  by  C.  W.  Bardeen,  Syra- 
cuse, N.Y. 


220  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

second,  the  period  of  general  education  in  the  common 
school,  from  six  to  twelve  or  fourteen  ;  third,  the  period 
of  preparation  for  the  professional  schools,  from  twelve 
or  fourteen  to  eighteen ;  and  fourth,  the  professional 
or  university  course,  from  eighteen  to  twenty-four.  The 
last  is  usually  divided  into  a  college  and  a  university 
course. 

(3)  The  educational  principles  of  Comenius  were  revo- 
lutionary as  to  the  school  practices  of  the  time.  They 
have  come  to  be  almost  universally  accepted  at  present. 
We  can  here  state  only  a  few  of  the  most  essential.1 

1.  If  we  would  teach  and  learn  surely,  we  must  follow 
the  order  of  Nature. 

2.  Let  everything  be  presented  through  the  senses. 

3.  Proceed   from   the   easy   to   the   difficult,   from    the 
near  to  the  remote,  from  the  general  to  the  special,  from 
the  known  to  the  unknown. 

4.  Make   learning   pleasant   by  the   choice  of  suitable 
material,  by  not  attempting  too  much,  by  the  use  of  con- 
crete examples,  and  by  the  selection  of  that  which  is  of 
utility. 

5.  Fix  firmly  by  frequent  repetitions  and  drills. 

6.  Let   all   things   advance    by   indissoluble    steps,    so 
that   everything    taught    to-day   may   give   firmness   and 
stability  to  what  was  taught  yesterday,  and  point  the  way 
to  the  work  of  to-morrow."  2 

7.  Let  everything  that  is  useless  be  eliminated  from 
teaching. 

8.  Learn  to  do  by  doing. 

9.  Each  language  should  be  learned  separately,  have 
a  definite  time  assigned  to  it,  be  learned  by  use  rather 

1  Laurie's  "  Life  and  Works  of  Comenius,"  p.  77. 
3  Ibid.,  p.  105. 


EDUCATORS  OF  THE  SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY    221 

than  precept,  —  that  is,  the  practice  in  learning  should  be 
with  familiar  things,  —  and  all  tongues  should  be  learned 
by  one  and  the  same  method. 

10.  The  example  of  well-ordered  life  of  parents,  nurses, 
teachers,  and  schoolfellows  is  very  important  for  children  ; 
but  precepts  and  rules  of  life  must  be  added  to  example. 

1 1.  As  knowledge  of  God  is  the  highest  of  all  knowl- 
edge, the  Holy  Scriptures  must  be  the  alpha  and  omega 
of  the  Christian  schools. 

Comenius  gives  explicit  directions  as  to  methods  of 
instruction,  class  management,  discipline,  courses  of  study, 
including  a  discussion  of  each  branch,  and  moral  and 
religious  teaching.  He  presents  these  directions  in  the 
most  remarkable  and  complete  series  of  precepts  and 
principles  to  be  found  in  educational  literature.1 

MILTON  (1608-1674) 

John  Milton  was  "  the  most  notable  man  who  ever  kept 
school  or  published  a  schoolbook."  While  his  fame 
rests  on  "  Paradise  Lost "  and  other  great  literary  works, 
he  deserves  a  place  among  educators  for  his  "Tractate 
on  Education,"  and  for  his  sympathy  with  educational 
reform.  He  anticipated  Herbert  Spencer's  celebrated 
definition,  — "  To  prepare  us  for  complete  living  is  the 
function  which  education  has  to  discharge," — in  the 
following  words :  "  I  call,  therefore,  a  complete  and 
generous  education  that  which  fits  a  man  to  perform 
justly,  skillfully,  and  magnanimously  all  the  offices,  both 
private  and  public,  of  peace  and  war." 

He  criticised   the  schools   of   his   time  and  sought   to 

1  For  full  discussion  of  the  pedagogical  principles  of  Comenius,  see  Pro- 
fessor Laurie's  great  work. 


222          .  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

make  them  more  practical.  Like  the  earlier  Innovators, 
and  in  harmony  with  the  spirit  that  was  rapidly  grow- 
ing, he  thought  that  too  much  time  was  given  to  the  study 
of  Latin,  and  urged  that  science,  music,  physical  culture, 
and  language  as  a  means  of  acquiring  a  knowledge  of  use- 
ful things,  should  receive  more  attention  in  the  schools. 
Quick  says, ,"  A  protest  against  a  purely  literary  education 
comes  with  tremendous  force  from  the  student  who  sacri- 
ficed his  sight  to  his  reading,  the  accomplished  scholar 
whose  Latin  works  were  known  throughout  Europe,  and 
the  author  of  '  Paradise  Lost.'  "  J 

Milton's  experience  in  teaching  was  confined  to  a 
small  boarding  school,  such  as  those  usually  resorted 
to  for  educating  the  sons  of  the  better  classes  in  Eng- 
land at  that  time.  For  pupils  he  began  with  two 
nephews,  to  whom  were  soon  added  a  few  other  boys. 
These  were  sons  of  Milton's  friends,  and  some  of  them 
came  as  boarders,  others  as  day  students.  Milton  seemed 
to  like  the  work  of  teaching,  and  it  was  during  this 
period  that  his  "  Tractate "  was  written.  He  probably 
taught  school  in  this  way  for  eight  or  nine  years,  and 
then  was  appointed  to  a  small  office  under  the  govern- 
ment, which  secured  his  living.  The  rest  of  his  life 
was  devoted  chiefly  to  literary  work. 

Milton's  "Tractate."  —  The  principal  lessons  from  this 
educational  work  are  embodied  in  the  following  quotation  : 
"  The  end  then  of  Learning  is  to  repair  the  ruines  of  our 
first  Parents  by  regaining  to  know  God  aright,  and  out  of 
that  knowledge  to  love  him,  and  to  imitate  him,  to  be 
like  him,  as  we  may  the  nearest  by  possessing  our  souls 
of  true  virtue,  which  being  united  to  the  heavenly  grace 
of  faith  makes  up  the  highest  perfection."2  This 

1  "  Educational  Reformers,"  p.  59.  2  "  Tractate,"  p.  3. 


EDUCATORS  OF  THE  SEVENTEENTH   CENTURY    22$ 

rather  cumbersome  definition  shows  how  fully  Milton 
was  possessed  of  the  Puritan  spirit,  which  then  con- 
trolled England,  and  which  magnified  religious  zeal. 

Milton's  scheme  of  education  may  be  briefly  summed 
up  as  follows  :  — 

1.  The  school  premises  should   consist  of  a  spacious 
house  with  large  school  grounds,  intended  for  about  one 
hundred  and  thirty  students  from  twelve  to  twenty-one 
years  of  age,  who  should  receive  their  complete  second- 
ary and  university  education  in  the  same  school.     This 
scheme,  so  unique  in  Milton's  time,  is  practically  carried 
out  in    France  and   the    United   States,  where   the   con- 
nection between  the  lower  and  higher  schools  is  direct. 
In  England,  the  land  of  its  inception,  and  in  Germany, 
there  is  no  such  direct   articulation   between   the   lower 
and  the  higher  schools. 

2.  The  course  of  study  embraces,  first,  the  Latin  gram- 
mar, arithmetic,  geometry,  religion,  and  Greek  authors  to 
be  read  in  translation ;  second,  Latin  authors,  geography, 
natural  philosophy;  third,  Greek,  trigonometry, — intended 
to   prepare   for   fortification,  —  architecture,   engineering, 
and  navigation,  anatomy,  and  medicine. 

This  course  is  supposed  to  be  completed  at  about  the 
age  of  sixteen.  The  harder  topics  now  follow,  together 
with  the  study  of  those  subjects  intended  to  teach  ethical 
judgment.  Milton  says,  "As  they  begin  to  acquire  char- 
acter, and  to  reason  on  the  difference  between  good  and 
evil,  there  will  be  required  a  constant  and  sound  in- 
doctrinating to  set  them  right  and  firm,  instructing  them 
more  amply  in  the  knowledge  of  virtue  and  the  hatred 
of  vice."  Then  come  Greek  authors,  Holy  Writ,  poetry, 
and  "at  any  odd  hour,  the  Italian  tongue,"  ethics,  and 
politics.  He  is  consistent  with  his  definition  of  educa- 


224  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

tion,  —  "that  which  fits  a  man  to  perform  justly,  skill- 
fully, and  magnanimously  all  the  offices,  both  public 
and  private,  of  peace  and  war,"  when  he  would  train 
men  to  be  "steadfast  pillars  of  the  State."  He  adds 
in  his  course  also  the  study  of  law,  including  Roman 
edicts  and  English  common  law,  a  knowledge  of  He- 
brew, and  possibly  Syrian  and  Chaldaic. 

Nor  were  physical  exercises  omitted.  Sword  exercises, 
wrestling,  military  tactics,  riding,  etc.,  were  to  be  daily 
practiced,  each  in  its  proper  time.  Finally,  the  young 
man,  when  about  twenty-three  years  of  age,  should  travel 
abroad,  and  thus,  when  mature  enough  to  comprehend 
them,  become  acquainted  with  the  geography,  history,  and 
politics  of  other  countries.  This  was  to  be  the  final  prep- 
aration for  citizenship  and  service  of  country.  Mr.  Brown- 
ing pronounces  this  a  "  magnificent  and  comprehensive 
scheme."  The  most  serious  criticism  of  it  is,  that  it  marks 
out  much  more  than  the  average  young  man  can  accom- 
plish. 

LOCKE1   (1632-1704) 

John  Locke  was  the  son  of  a  Puritan  gentleman  who 
took  active  part  in  the  wars  for  religious  freedom  fought 
during  the  latter  part  of  the  seventeenth  century.  With- 
out doubt  the  stirring  scenes  enacted  and  the  great  moral 
movements  which  occupied  England  had  a  great  influence 
upon  Locke's  life.  He  was  carefully  trained  at  home 
until  he  was  about  fourteen  years  old,  when  he  entered 
Westminster  School,  a  Puritan  institution,  where  he  re- 
mained for  six  years.  He  then  entered  Oxford,  and  in 
due  time  took  his  bachelor's  and  master's  degrees.  In 

1  See  Fowler's  "  Locke."     Also  Quick,  Compayre,  and  Williams. 


EDUCATORS  OF  THE  SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY    225 

1660,  when  twenty-eight  years  old,  he  was  made  tutor  of 
Christ  Church,  Oxford,  where  he  lectured  on  Greek,  rhet- 
oric^ and  philosophy.  He  interested  himself  in  theology, 
but  never  took  orders ;  and  he  also  studied  medicine  and 
for  a  time  practiced  it.  His  own  health  was  precarious,  he 
having  suffered  from  chronic  consumption  nearly  all  his 
life.  Nevertheless,  he  accomplished  a  tremendous  amount 
of  work.  The  friendship  of  the  Earl  of  Shaftesbury  gave 
Locke  some  political  prestige.  He  lived  in  the  family  of 
that  nobleman  for  many  years,  and  was  the  tutor  of  his 
son-  and  grandson. 

Locke'*s  great  work,  on  which  his  fame  securely  rests, 
is  the  "Essay  concerning  Human  Understanding,"  which 
stamps  him  as  the  greatest  of  English  philosophers.  This 
appeared  in  1690.  His  most  important  educational  work 
is  entitled  "Some  Thoughts  concerning  Education."  Com- 
payre  says,  "  From  psychology  to  pedagogy  the  transition 
is  easy,  and  Locke  had  to  make  no  great  effort  to  become 
an  authority  on  education  after  having  been  an  accom- 
plished philosopher."  Further,  the  same  author  says  con- 
cerning the  essential  principles  discussed  in  "Thoughts 
concerning  Education,"  "These  are  :  i,  in  physical  educa- 
tion, the  hardening  process ;  2,  in  intellectual  education, 
practical  utility ;  3,  in  moral  education,  the  principle  of 
honor,  set  up  as  a  rule  for  the  free  self-government  of 
man." 

In  Locke,  for  the  first  time,  we  find  a  careful  set  of 
rules  as  to  the  food,  sleep,  physical  exercise,  and  cloth- 
ing of  children.  While  modern  science  rejects  some  of 
these,  most  of  them  are  regarded  as  sound  in  practice. 
Plenty  of  outdoor  exercise,  clothing  loose  and  not  too 
warm,  plain  food  with  but  little  meat  or  sugar,  proper 
hours  of  sleep,  and  beds  not  too  soft,  early  retiring  and 

HIST.   OF   ED. —  15 


226  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

rising,  and  cold  baths,  are  means  prescribed  to  harden  the 
body  and  prepare  it  to  resist  the  attacks  of  disease.  "  A 

I  sound  mind  in  a  sound  body  "  is  the  celebrated  aphorism 
which  sums  up  Locke's  educational  theory. 

As  to  moral  education,  Locke  declares,  "That  which  a 
gentleman  ought  to  desire  for  his  son,  besides  the  fortune 
which  he  leaves  him,  is,  i,  virtue;  2,  prudence;  3,  good 
manners ;  4,  instruction."  In  his  course  of  study  the 
idea  of  utility  prevails.  After  reading,  writing,  drawing, 
geography,  and  the  mother  tongue  are  mastered,  Locke, 
like  Montaigne,  would  teach  the  language  of  nearest 
neighbors,  and  then  Latin.  Even  the  Latin  tongue  should 
be  learned  through  use,  rather  than  by  rules  of  grammar 
and  by  memorizing  the  works  of  classic  authors. 

While  his  system  of  education  was  planned  for  sons  of 
gentlemen,  Locke  urged  the  establishment  of  "working 
schools  "  for  children  of  the  laboring  classes.  This  was  in 
line  with  his  utilitarian  ideas,  as  the  intent  was  not  so  much 
intellectual  training,  as  the  formation  of  steady  habits  and 
the  preparation  for  success  in  industrial  pursuits.  Locke's 
plan  was  for  a  sort  of  manual  training  school,  the  first 
appearance  of  such  a  project  in  history. 

Locke  did  not  believe  in  universal  education,  nor  in  the 
public  school.  Only  gentlemen  were  provided  for  in  his 
formal  scheme,  and  herein  he  followed  the  path  marked 
out  by  Alfred  the  Great  eight  hundred  years  before, 
which  England  has  not  completely  forsaken  to  this  day. 
Since  he  had  done  all  his  teaching  as  a  private  tutor  in 
the  family  of  a  gentleman,  one  can  easily  understand  his 
advocacy  of  that  form  of  instruction  for  the  favored  few. 
Locke's  teachings  in  this  respect  are  gradually  losing  their 
hold  even  in  England,  the  most  conservative  of  all  coun- 
tries in  educational  matters,  and  the  latest  great  nation 


to  accept  the  principle  of  universal  education.  During  the 
last  quarter  of  a  century  England  has  been  earnestly  seek- 
ing to  give  every  child,  whether  of  gentle  or  of  humble 
birth,  rich  or  poor,  what  his  birthright  demands,  —  a  good 
common  school  education. 

The  influence  of  Locke  upon  education,  then,  has  been 
very  great.  Williams  remarks  that  "  he  inspired  Rousseau 
with  nearly  every  valuable  thought  which  appears  in  the 
brilliant  pages  of  his  '  Emile.'  He  seems  himself  to  have 
derived  some  of  his  most  characteristic  ideas  from  Mon- 
taigne, and  possibly  also  from  Rabelais." 1  Although 
Locke  differed  from  other  educational  reformers  in  many 
respects,  though  he  was  somewhat  narrow  in  his  concep- 
tion of  education,  owing  to  his  environment,  he  opposed 
the  dry  formalism  that  characterized  the  educational  prac- 
tice of  his  time,  and  sought  to  emancipate  man  both 
intellectually  and  physically. 

FENELON  (1651-1715) 

F6nelon  was  born  of  noble  parents  in  the  province  of 
Perigord,  France.  During  his  early  years  his  father  at- 
tended very  carefully  to  his  education,  and  later  his  uncle, 
the  Marquis  de  Fenelon,  became  his  guardian.  Though 
delicate  in  health,  the  boy  showed  remarkable  aptness  in 
learning.  At  the  age  of  twelve  he  entered  the  college  of 
Cahors,  and  thence  went  to  the  university  of  Paris.  He 
was  destined  by  his  parents  for  the  Church,  for  which,  by 
natural  temperament  and  pious  zeal,  he  was  well  fitted. 
He  preached  at  fifteen  with  marked  success,  and  took  up 
a  theological  course  at  St.  Sulpice.  At  the  age  of  twenty- 
four  he  was  ordained  priest.  He  desired  to  enter  the 

1 "  History  of  Modern  Education,"  p.  181. 


228  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION- 

missionary  field,  first  in  Canada,  and  later  in  Greece,  but 
had  to  abandon  this  purpose  on  account  of  ill  health. 

Saint-Simon,  in  his  "  Memoires,"  describes  Fenelon  as  a 
man  of  striking  appearance,  and  says,  "His  manner  alto- 
gether corresponded  to  his  appearance ;  his  perfect  ease 
was  infectious  to  others,  and  his  conversation  was  stamped 
with  the  grace  and  good  taste  which  are  acquired  by 
habitual  intercourse  with  the  best  society  and  the  great 
world." 

For  ten  years  Fenelon  was  at  the  head  of  the  convent 
of  the  New  Catholics,  an  institution  which  sought  to  reclaim 
Protestant  young  women  to  Catholicism.  In  this  position, 
as  well  as  in  all  his  lifework,  though  himself  an  ardent 
Catholic,  Fenelon's  course  was  so  temperate  and  just  that 
he  won  the  warmest  admiration  even  of  Protestants,  who 
did  not  accept  his  faith.  Among  his  friends  were  the 
Duke  and  Duchess  of  Beauvilliers,  who  had  eight  daugh- 
ters and  several  sons.  At  their  suggestion,  and  for  the 
purpose  of  helping  them  in  educating  their  daughters,  he 
wrote  his  first  and  most  important  educational  work, 
"The  Education  of  Girls."  Compayr6  pronounces  this 
"the  first  classical  work  of  French  pedagogy."  He  fur- 
ther speaks  of  this  book  as  "  a  work  of  gentleness  and 
goodness,  of  a  complaisant  and  amiable  grace,  which  is 
pervaded  by  a  spirit  of  progress." 1  It  appeared  in 
1687. 

In  1689,  when  thirty-eight  years  of  age,  Fenelon  was 
chosen  preceptor  of  the  grandson  of  Louis  XIV.,  the  young 
Duke  of  Burgundy.  In  this  position  his  remarkable  pow- 
ers as  a  teacher  were  brought  to  light,  and  he  applied  the 
theories  which  he  had  promulgated.  The  young  duke,  who 
was  eight  years  of  age,  was  of  a  passionate  nature,  hard  to 

1  "  History  of  Pedagogy,"  p.  165. 


EDUCATORS  OF  THE  SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY   229 

control,  and  yet,  withal,  of  warm-hearted  impulses.  It  is 
said  that  "  he  would  break  the  clocks  which  summoned 
him  to  unwelcome  duty,  and  fly  into  the  wildest  rage  with 
the  rain  which  hindered  some  pleasure."  The  "  Telema- 
chus"1  of  Fenelon,  perhaps  his  greatest  literary  work,  was 
composed  at  this  time,  as  were  also  his  "  Dialogues  of  the 
Dead "  and  his  "  Fables."  The  inspiration  of  all  these 
works  was  found  in  the  charge  committed  to  him  —  that  of 
properly  instructing  his  royal  pupil.  Fenelon  thus  created 
the  material  through  which  he  interested  the  boy  and 
taught  him  the  intended  lessons.  The  "  Telemachus  "  was 
designed  for  the  moral  and  political  instruction  of  the 
prince ;  through  his  "  Dialogues  of  the  Dead  "  he  taught 
history  ;  and  his  "  Fables  "  were  composed  for  the  purpose 
of  teaching  the  moral  and  intellectual  lessons  which  he 
wished  to  impart  to  his  illustrious,  but  headstrong,  pupil. 
Fenelon's  success  with  the  prince  was  phenomenal,  as  the 
passionate  boy  became  affectionate,  docile,  and  obedient. 

The  success  of  the  experiment,  however,  was  never  put 
to  the  final  test,  as  the  duke  died  before  coming  to  the 
throne.  There  seems  to  be  no  doubt  that  the  cure  was 
permanent,  and  it  is  not  believed  that,  like  Nero,  he  would 
have  relapsed  into  his  former  viciousness  and  cruelty. 

One  naturally  compares  Fenelon  with  Seneca.  To  both 
were  committed  children,  heirs  apparent  to  thrones,  — 
willful,  cruel,  disobedient,  and  hard  to  control.  In 
Seneca's  pupil  the  seeds  of  cruelty  remained,  to  germinate 
into  the  awful  tyrant ;  in  Fenelon's  the  evil  seemed 
to  be  permanently  eradicated,  and  the  result  was  a  prince 
with  generous  impulses  and  noble  intentions.  And  this 
result  was  largely  owing  to  the  difference  in  the  teach- 
ers,—  Fenelon,  the  gentle,  but  firm,  patient,  painstaking 

1  "  Schoolmaster  in  Comedy  and  Satire,"  pp.  73-100. 
HIST.  OF   ED. —  15 


230  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

conscientious  man  ;  Seneca,  the  more  brilliant,  but  vacillat- 
ing and  timeserving  sycophant. 

Fenelon's  Pedagogy.  —  i.  There  must  be  systematic  care 
of  the  body.  Therefore  regular  meals  and  plain  food, 
plenty  of  sleep,  exercise,  etc.,  are  essential. 

2.  All  instruction  must  be  made  pleasant  and  interest- 
ing.    Play  is  to  be  utilized  in  teaching.     In  this  he  antici- 
pated Froebel. 

3.  Let  punishments  be  as  light  as  possible.     Encourage 
children  to  be  open  and  truthful,  and  do  not  prevent  con- 
fession by  making  punishments  too  frequent  or  too  severe. 
Punishment  should  be  administered  privately,  as  a  rule, 
and  publicly  only  when  all  other  means  have  failed.     , 

4.  Present  the  thing  before  its  name,  —  the  idea  before 
the  word.     Study  things,  investigate.     Employ  curiosity. 
In  this  he  was  a  disciple  of  Bacon  and  Comenius,  and  a 
prophet  to  Pestalozzi. 

5.  Allow  nothing  to  be  committed  to  memory  that  is 
not  understood. 

6.  Girls,  also,    must   share   the   benefits  of   education. 
Especial  attention  should  be  given  to  teaching  them  mod- 
esty, gentleness,  piety,  household  economy,  the  duties  of 
their  station  in  life,  and  those  of  motherhood. 

/.  Morality  should  be  taught  early  and  by  means  of 
fables,  stories,  and  concrete  examples. 

8.  Proceed  from  the  near  at  hand  to  the  remote,  from 
the  known  to  the  unknown.  Thus  in  language,  after  the 
mother  tongue,  teach  other  living  languages,  and  then 
the  classics.  The  latter  are  to  be  learned  by  conversation 
about  common  objects,  and  by  application  of  the  rules  of 
grammar  in  connection  therewith.  In  geography  and  his- 
tory one's  own  environment  and  country  should  be  learned 
first,  then  other  countries. 


EDUCATORS  OF  THE  SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY 

9.  Example  is  of  great  importance  to  all  periods  of  life, 
but  especially  to  childhood.  This  Fenelon  practically 
illustrated  by  his  own  life  and  by  the  concrete  cases  which 
he  used.  Voltaire  says  of  Fenelon,  "  His  wit  was  over- 
flowing with  beauty,  his  heart  with  goodness." 


LA  SALLE  AND  THE  BROTHERS  OF  THE  CHRISTIAN 
SCHOOLS  i  • 

Inx  1 68 1,  La  Salle,  a  devoted  priest  of  the  Catholic 
Church,  organized  the  Brothers  of  the  Christian  Schools. 

The  idea  primarily  was  to  awaken  interest  in  elementary 
education.  He  perfected  the  work  already  done  by  Peter 
Faurier,  Charles  Demia,  and  others.  The  method  of 
instruction,  up  to  this  time,  had  been  largely  individual. 
The  pupils  were  called  up  to  the  teacher,  one  by  one, 
or  at  most  two  by  two,  and,  after  the  lesson  had  been 
heard,  they  were  sent  back  to  their  seats  to  study.  La 
Salle  conceived  the  idea  of  grading  together  pupils  of 
the  same  advancement,  and  teaching  them  simultane- 
ously, —  a  practice  now  employed  in  primary  schools 
everywhere.  It  is  known  as  the  Simultaneous  Method. 
Brother  Azarias  says  of  this  method,  "  Because  we  all 
of  us  have  been  trained  according  to  this  method,  and 
see  it  practiced  in  nearly  all  of  our  public  and  many 
of  our  private  schools  throughout  the  land,  and  have 
ceased  to  find  it  a  subject  of  wonder,  we  may  be 
inclined  to  undervalue  its  importance.  Not  so  was  it 
regarded  in  the  days  of  La  Salle.  Then  a  Brothers' 
School  was  looked  upon  with  admiration.  Strangers  were 
shown  it  as  a  curiosity  worth  visiting." 

1  Especial  reference  is  made  to  Brother  Azarias,  "  Essays  Educational." 


232  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

La  Salle  laid  down  many  explicit  rules  concerning  pun- 
ishment, methods  of  teaching,  and  school  organization  in 
a  book  called  "The  Conduct  of  Schools."  While  modern 
criticism  would  condemn  many  of  these  rules,  we  think, 
with  Compayre\  that  "  whatever  the  distance  which  sepa- 
rates these  gloomy  schools  from  our  modern  ideal,  —  from 
the  pleasant,  active,  animated  school,  such  as  we  conceive 
it  to-day,  —  there  is  none  the  less  obligation  to  do  justice 
to  La  Salle,  to  pardon  him  for  practices  which  were  those 
of  his  time,  and  to  admire  him  for  the  good  qualities  that 
were  peculiarly  his  own.  "  1 

He  established  the  first  normal  school  in  history  at 
Rheims  in  1684,  thirteen  years  before  Francke  organized 
his  teachers'  class  at  Halle,  and  fifty  years  before  Hecker 
founded  the  first  Prussian  normal  school  at  Stettin.  La 
Salle  magnified  the  teacher's  office,  and  urgently  demanded 
professional  training  for  instructors  of  the  young.  Brother 
Azarias  forcibly  sums  up  La  Salle's  great  work  in  this 
respect  as  follows :  "  He  is  the  benefactor  of  the  modern 
schoolmaster.  He  it  was  who  raised  primary  teaching  out 
of  the  ruts  of  never  ending  routine,  carried  on  in  the  midst 
of  time-honored  noise  and  confusion,  and,  in  giving  it 
principles  and  a  method,  made  of  it  a  science.  He  hedged 
in  the  dignity  of  the  schoolmaster.  He  was  the  first  to 
assert  the  exclusive  right  of  the  master  to  devote  his  whole 
time  to  his  school  work."2 

Education,  therefore,  owes  to  La  Salle  three  important 
contributions, — (i)  the  Simultaneous  Method  of  Instruc- 
tion, whereby  a  number  of  children  of  the  same  advance- 
ment are  taught  together;  (2)  the  first  Normal  School, 
established  at  Rheims,  France,  in  1684;  and  (3)  a  dignify- 
ing of  the  teacher's  profession  by  setting  apart  trained 

1  "  History  of  Pedagogy,"  p.  276.        2  "  Essays  Educational,"  p.  238. 


EDUCATORS  OF  THE  SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY    233 

persons  who  should  give  all  their  time  to  the  work  of 
teaching. 

Rollin  (1661-1741).  —  This  great  teacher,  connected  for 
many  years  with  the  University  of  Paris,  and  deposed 
therefrom  in  connection  with  the  Jansenists  to  whom  he 
adhered,  was  not  merely  a  university  lecturer,  but  also  an 
author  of  educational  works  and  a  student  of  general 
education.  His  most  important  educational  work  is  his 
"Treatise  on  Studies."  Rollin  anticipated  modern  prac- 
tice by  seeking  to  make  learning  pleasant  and  discipline 
humane.  He  would  use  the  rod  only  as  a  last  resort  —  a 
theory  quite  contrary  to  the  practice  of  that  time.  Too 
much  freedom,  he  thought,  would  have  a  tendency  to  make 
children  impudent ;  too  frequent  appeal  to  fear  breaks  the 
spirit;  praise  arouses  and  encourages  the  child,  but  too 
much  of  it  makes  him  vain.  Therefore  the  teacher  must 
avoid  both  extremes.  While  he  would  have  girls  know  the 
four  ground  rules  of  arithmetic,  that  is  about  all  they  should 
have  except  domestic  training.  Rollin  had  no  connection 
with  elementary  schools  and  but  little  contact  with  children; 
therefore  his  precepts  do  not  always  have  the  sound  basis 
that  experience  furnishes.  Nevertheless,  he  exerted  a 
salutary  influence  upon  the  education  of  his  time. 

Summary  of  the  Educational  Progress  of  the  Seventeenth 
Century.  —  r.  School  systems  were  established  and  com- 
pulsory attendance  made  efficient  in  Weimar  in  1619,  in 
Gotha  in  1642,  and  in  many  other  cities,  showing  a  grow- 
ing recognition  of  the  principle  of  universal  education  and 
the  duty  of  the  State  to  assume  the  responsibility  for  its 
attainment. 

2.  A  school  of  educators,  known  as  the  "  Innovators," 
laid  emphasis  on  sense-realism,  —  the  study  of  things,  the 
contact  with  nature,  the  education  that  is  of  practical  use. 


234  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

3.  Bacon  laid  the  foundation  of  all  future  scientific  re- 
search by  his  inductive  method.     This  increased  the  riches 
of  the  world  beyond  calculation,  taught  how  investigation 
is  to  be  made,  laid  the  foundation  of  modern  science,  and 
gave  direction  to  all  later  education. 

4.  Ratke,  though  erratic  and  vulgar,  instituted  whole- 
some reforms  in  the  teaching  of  languages,  and  promul- 
gated  theories    which,  under   later    reformers,  bore   rich 
fruitage. 

5.  Comenius,  one  of  the  greatest  educators  of  all  time, 
produced  the  first  illustrated  text-book,  planned  a  general 
organization  for  schools  in  several  countries,  which  is  the 
basis  of  present  systems,  and  proclaimed  theories  which 
are  now  universally  accepted  as  the  guide  of  modern  peda- 
gogical practice. 

6.  Milton,  though    primarily  a   literary  man,  lent  the 
weight  of  his  genius  and  his  great  name  to  school  reform. 
He  marked  out  a  course  of  study  which  contemplates  a  unity 
of  purpose  from  the  elementary  school  to  the  university. 

7.  The  great  English  philosopher,  Locke,  also  found 
time  to  devote  to  education.    His  principle,  "A  sound  mind 
in  a  sound  body"  directed  attention  to  physical  education. 

8.  In  the  noble  French  priest,  Fe"nelon,  we  find  an  exam- 
ple of  theory  practically  applied.     He  gives,  also,  for  the 
first  time,  a  place  in  pedagogy  to  the  education  of  girls. 

9.  In  general,  we  find  that  the  seventeenth  century  laid 
stress  upon  the  principle  of  utility,  gave  great  impulse  to 
science,  called  attention  to  the  care  of  the  body,  decreased 
the  influence  of  classic  studies,  brushed  away  the  fabric 
which  superstition  and  conservatism  had  woven,  produced 
some  of  the  greatest  educators  that  have  ever  lived,  and 
laid  the  foundations  on  which  modern  education  is  built. 


CHAPTER   XXXIV 

AUGUST  HERMANN  FRANCKE  AND  THE  PIETISTS  (1663-1727) 

Literature.  —  Rein,  Encyklopadisches  Handbuch  ;  Strack,  Geschichte 
des  Volkschulwesens ;  Dyer,  Modern  Europe ;  Rein,  Am  Ende  der 
Schulreform?  Russell,  German  Higher  Schools. 


PIETISM 

PIETISM  is  the  name  of  a  movement  in  Germany  which 
sought  to  revive  spiritual  life  in  the  Lutheran  Church.  In 
that  church,  religion  had  become  purely  a  matter  of  intel- 
lect, instead  of  heart.  Cold  formality  and  adherence  to 
the  letter,  rather  than  the  spirit,  had  taken  possession  of 
the  Protestant  Church.  Like  the  Jansenists  in  France, 
who  had  a  similar  purpose  with  reference  to  the  Catholic 
Church,  and  later  the  Methodists  in  England,  who  sought 
to  awaken  religious  zeal  in  the  Church  of  England,  the 
Pietists  of  Germany  endeavored  to  vitalize  religious  life, 
and  to  lead  men  away  from  creeds  promulgated  by  human 
agency,  to  the  pure  word  of  God.  The  Pietists  differed 
from  the  orthodox  Lutherans  not  in  doctrine,  but  in  insist- 
ing on  the  necessity  of  a  change  of  heart  and  a  pious  life, 
instead  of  mere  adherence  to  formal  doctrine. 

The  Pietists  founded  the  university  of  Halle,  and  this 
remained  the  center  of  the  movement  until  it  had  run  its 
course.  Pietism  had  its  inception  during  the  latter  part 
of  the  seventeenth  century,  and  it  extended  through  the 
first  half  of  the  eighteenth  century.  Its  originator  was 
Philipp  Jakob  Spener,  a  man  of  remarkable  zeal  and  godly 
life.  Though  it  met  with  bitter  opposition  on  the  part  of 

235 


236  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

the  orthodox  Lutherans,  it  certainly  did  great  good,  not 
only  to  its  adherents,  but  to  the  Church  at  large,  by  awaken- 
ing deeper  spiritual  life.  Its  influence  was  also  great  in 
reviving  Biblical  study  in  Germany,  in  improving  the  char- 
acter of  teachers,  and  in  giving  a  spiritual  direction  to  the 
studies  of  the  schools.  It  has  left  an  enduring  monument 
in  the  great  Institutions  that  it  founded  at  Halle.  The 
greatest  of  the  Pietists  was  August  Hermann  Francke, 
who  is  celebrated,  not  only  as  a  theologian,  but  as  a 
philanthropist  and  teacher. 

FRANCKE1    (1663-1727) 

Francke's  early  education  was  conducted  by  private 
teachers,  though  his  parents,  who  were  intelligent  and 
God-fearing  people,  exerted  a  strong  influence  upon  him. 
At  thirteen  he  entered  the  highest  class  of  the  Gymnasium 
at  Gotha,  where  he  remained  for  one  year.  Here  he  was 
introduced  to  the  reform  teachings  of  Ratke  and  Comenius. 
Two  years  later  he  entered  the  university  of  Erfurt  as  a 
student  of  theology.  He  studied  also  at  Kiel  and  Leipsic. 
While  he  gave  particular  attention  to  Hebrew  and  Greek, 
he  also  learned  French,  English,  and  Italian.  He  seemed 
to  be  gifted  with  a  talent  for  learning  languages,  for  during 
a  short  residence  in  Holland  in  later  life  he  learned  the 
Dutch  language  so  well  that  he  was  able  to  preach  in  it. 
Under  the  instruction  of  a  Jewish  rabbi,  he  read  the 
Hebrew  Bible  through  seven  times  in  one  year.  After 
spending  some  time  as  teacher  in  a  private  school,  he 
returned  to  Leipsic  as  Privat  Decent"*  in  the  university. 

1  Rein's  "  Encyklopadisches  Handbuch,"  Vol.  II,  p.  336. 

2  The  Privat  Docent  is  the  first  step  in  the  professor's  career  in  the  Ger- 
man university.     He  is  allowed  -to  lecture  in  the  university,  but  receives  no 
pay  except  fees  from  the  students  who  hear  him. 


FRANC KE  AND   THE  PIETISTS  237 

Having  become  acquainted  with  Spener  and  his  teach- 
ings, Francke  became  an  earnest  Pietist.  His  success  in 
lecturing  and  his  zeal  in  religious  work  drew  around  him  a 
large  number  of  students.  This  awakened  the  envy  of  the 
old  professors  of  the  university,  and  they  began  a  persecu- 
tion which  caused  his  dismissal.  He  then  went  to  Erfurt 
and  preached  with  remarkable  success,  drawing  great 
crowds  by  his  earnestness  and  eloquence.  Persecution 
again  followed  him,  and  he  was  banished  from  the  city. 

About  this  time  the  new  university  of  Halle  called 
Francke  to  the  chair  of  Greek  and  oriental  languages 
and  afterward  to  that  of  theology.  He  began  his  work 
in  1692,  and  remained  in  that  position  for  nearly  thirty-six 
years,  until  his  death.  As  this  position  did  not  furnish 
enough  to  live  upon,  he  became  pastor  of  the  church  in 
the  neighboring  village  of  Glaucha.  In  his  pastoral  work 
he  came  in  contact  with  poverty,  drunkenness,  and  every 
form  of  immorality.  Moved  with  pity,  he  collected  small 
sums  of  money,  which  he  distributed  among  the  poor  after 
catechising  the  children. 

At  Easter,  1695,  he  found  seven  guldens  ($2.80)  in  the 
collection  boxes,  which  he  declared  to  be  "  A  splendid  cap- 
ital with  which  something  of  importance  can  be  founded  ; 
I  will  begin  a  school  for  the  poor  with  it."  This  was  the 
beginning  of  the  great  orphan  asylum  at  Halle, — 
an  enterprise  the  magnitude  of  which  we  shall  describe 
later.  Without  visible  income,  with  no  means  at  com- 
mand, but  with  a  sublime  faith  in  God  and  humanity,  and 
an  overwhelming  sense  of  the  ignorance  and  misery 
of  the  children  about  him,  Francke  began  at  once  the 
great  work ;  nor  was  his  faith  misplaced,  as  the  result 
shows.  He  gathered  together  a  few  children  and  placed 
a  student  over  them  as  a  teacher.  Soon  the  better  class 


238  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

of  citizens  took  an  interest,  and  desired  him  to  provide  a 
school  for  their  children.  Two  rooms  were  rented,  one 
for  those  who  could  not  pay  and  the  other  for  those  who 
could.  This  was  the  foundation  of  the  free  school  and  the 
citizens1  school  still  connected  with  the  Institutions.  In 
the  fall  of  1695,  Francke  founded  the  orphan  asylum. 
Money  flowed  in  from  all  parts  of  the  country  as  people 
began  to  understand  the  great  work.  Francke  was  thus 
able  to  branch  out  in  many  directions.  He  established  a 
Pedagogium  to  prepare  teachers  for  his  and  other  schools ; 
free  meals  were  furnished  to  students  who  devoted  a 
part  of  their  time  to  teaching  in  the  institutions ;  separate 
schools  for  boys  and  girls,  a  Gymnasium,  a  Real-school,  a 
bookbindery  and  printing  establishment,  and  many  other 
institutions  were  founded. 

The  Institutions  at  Halle.  —  In  a  few  years  Francke  had 
in  successful  operation  a  marvelous  system,  a  work  founded 
upon  love  of  humanity  and  dependent  upon  philanthropy 
for  its  support.  The  results  attracted  attention  from  all 
Europe,  and  students  came  from  many  lands.  "At  the 
death  of  Francke  in  the  year  1727,  the  following  report  of 
the  Institutions  was  sent  to  King  Frederick  William  I. : 
(i)  In  the  Pedagogism,  82  scholars,  70  teachers  and  other 
persons ;  (2)  in  the  Latin  school,  3  inspectors,  32  teachers, 
400  pupils,  and  10  servants;  (3)  in  the  common  school, 
4  inspectors,  98  male  teachers,  8  female  teachers,  1725  boys 
and  girls ;  (4)  orphans,  100  boys,  34  girls,  10  overseers ; 
(5)  at  the  free  table,  225  students,  360  poor  children  ;  (6) 
employed  in  the  drug  store,  bookstore,  etc.,  and  other  per- 
sons in  the  establishment,  82."1  This  makes  a  total  of 
over  3200  persons  instructed,  sheltered,  employed,  or 
otherwise  connected  with  these  great  Institutions.  The 

1  K.  Schmidt,  "Geschichte  der  Padagogik,"  Vol.  Ill,  p.  462. 


FRANC KE  AND   THE  PIETISTS  239 

foundations  were  so  firmly  laid  that  the  progress  has  been 
steady  from  that  time  to  this.  At  present  there  are  no 
less  than  twenty-five  different  enterprises  connected  with 
the  Institutions,  among  which  may  be  mentioned  a  free 
school  for  boys,  and  one  for  girls ;  a  common  school  for 
boys,  and  one  for  girls ;  a  royal  Pedagogium ;  a  Latin 
school ;  a  higher  girls'  school ;  a  Real-gymnasium  ;  a  pre- 
paratory school  for  the  high  school;  a  Real-school;  an 
orphan  asylum  for  boys,  and  one  for  girls ;  a  boarding 
house  for  students ;  a  Bible  house,  which  has  distributed 
about  6,500,000  Bibles  and  religious  works;  a  teachers' 
seminary  (normal  school)  for  each  sex;  a  bookstore,  a 
printing  house,  and  a  drug  store.1  About  3000  children 
receive  instruction  in  the  various  schools,  and  about  1 18,000 
have  been  recipients  of  the  benefits  since  the  Institutions 
were  founded  two  hundred  years  ago.  The  cost  is  about 
one  million  marks  a  year,  which  is  covered  by  endow- 
ments, by  tuition  fees,  by  profits  from  the  productive  de- 
partments (bookstores,  printing  establishment,  etc.),  and 
by  moneys  received  from  the  State.  Francke's  idea  of 
depending  upon  voluntary  gifts  has  been  abandoned. 

All  this  work  is  the  result  of  the  energy  of  a  man  who 
began  with  a  capital  of  less  than  three  dollars,  and  a  vast 
amount  of  faith  to  found  "  something  of  importance." 

The  Training  of  Teachers.  —  While  Francke's  greatest 
work  for  mankind  was  the  Institutions  mentioned  above, 
we  must  notice  one  field  of  his  activity  that  is  of  especial 
importance  to  us,  —  that  of  the  training  of  teachers.  We 
have  seen  that,  on  account  of  the  scarcity  of  funds,  he 
was  obliged  to  rely  upon  students  to  do  the  work  of  in- 
structing the  children  committed  to  his  care.  The  young 
theologians  made  use  of  this  opportunity  as  a  stepping- 

1  See  Rein,  "  Encyklopadisches  Handbuch,"  Vol.  II,  p.  348. 


240  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

stone  to  their  future  calling,  the  ministry,  and  Francke, 
perceiving  this,  sought  to  secure  the  most  pious  and  gifted 
among  his  theological  students  for  this  work.  He  also  es- 
tablished a  pedagogical  class  (Pedagogiuni).  After  two 
years'  membership  therein,  the  student  was  allowed  to  teach 
provided  he  pledged  himself  to  devote  three  years  to  teach- 
ing in  the  schools.  This  class  met  once  a  week  for  criticism 
and  discussion  under  the  leadership  of  the  inspector  of  the 
school,  and  the  various  inspectors  met  Francke  every 
evening  for  further  instruction.  The  results  soon  attracted 
widespread  notice,  and  created  a  great  demand  for 
Francke's  teachers.  Although  this  was  very  crude  peda- 
gogical training,  it  may  be  regarded  as  the  inception  of 
the  normal  school,  which  has  now  come  to  be  an  essential 
part  of  every  educational  system. 

The  Real-school.  —  A  third  service  is  credited  by  many 
to  Francke,  namely,  the  founding  of  the  Real-school1  of 
Germany.  The  best  authorities  give  that  credit  to  Pro- 
fessor Erhard  Weigel  of  Jena.  Whether  or  not  the  idea 
originated  with  Francke,  he  was  ready  to  accept  the 
necessity  of  such  a  change,  and  founded  schools  for  higher 
learning  in  which  Greek  and  Latin  were  not  required,  and 
in  which  more  attention  was  given  to  modern  languages 
and  science. 

1  The  Real-school  is  the  great  rival  of  the  Gymnasium  in  Germany.  The 
latter  is  the  old  established  school  which  bases  culture  on  the  Humanities,  — 
the  classic  languages,  and  literature.  The  Real-school  is  more  modern  and 
gives  greater  attention  to  the  Realities,  —  to  things  of  practical  utility.  Pre- 
cedence is  given  to  the  modern  languages,  sciences,  and  arts.  While  the 
chief  purpose  of  the  Gymnasium  is  to  prepare  for  the  learned  professions,  that 
of  the  Real-school  is  to  prepare  for  practical  life.  The  relation  of  these  two 
institutions  to  each  other  and  to  the  university  led  to  the  Berlin  Conference 
in  1890,  at  which  it  clearly  appeared  that  the  younger  is  outstripping  the  older 
and  more  conservative  institution.  See  Russell,  "  German  Higher  Schools." 


CHAPTER   XXXV 

GENERAL   VIEW  OF  THE  EIGHTEENTH  AND   NINETEENTH 
CENTURIES 

Literature.  —  Dyer,  Modern  Europe;  Duruy,  The  French  Revolu- 
tion; Yonge,  Three  Centuries  of  Modern  History;  Andrews,  Institutes 
of  General  History ;  Lord,  Beacon  Lights ;  Taylor,  History  of  Ger- 
many ;  Guizot,  History  of  Civilization ;  Drafter,  Conflict  between  Re- 
ligion and  Science ;  Schivickerath,  Jesuit  Education. 


THE  history  of  the  world  since  the  seventeenth  century 
has  been  crowded  with  events,  and  characterized  by  move- 
ments of  greatest  moment  to  mankind.  It  is  not  the  pur- 
pose of  this  work  to  discuss  political  movements,  to 
chronicle  wars,  or  to  study  the  great  upheavals  of  society 
except  in  so  far  as  they  have  a  direct  bearing  upon  educa- 
tional questions.1 

The  political  chains  that  fettered  the  nations  of  the 
world  have  gradually  been  broken  until  greater  liberty  has 
been  secured,  a  more  perfect  acknowledgment  of  the  rights 
of  the  individual  brought  about,  and  a  more  tolerant  re- 
ligious spirit  fostered  in  every  civilized  land.  These 
things  have  exerted  a  tremendous  force  in  the  intellectual 
emancipation  of  man.  At  last  the  long  struggle  of  the 
centuries  begins  to  bear  legitimate  fruit,  and  the  supreme 
educational  purpose  of  Christianity,  that  of  asserting 

1  It  must  be  freely  admitted  that  such  influences  are  powerful  in  shaping  the 
destiny  of  man,  and  that  they  have  had  much  to  do  with  education,  as  we  have 
often  shown  in  the  foregoing  pages.     We  must,  however,  leave  the  tracing  of 
the  movements  to  each  individual  student. 
HIST.   OF  ED.  —  16  24! 


242  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

and  maintaining  the  importance  of  the  individual,  seems 
destined  to  complete  realization.  The  noble  truths  of  broth- 
erly love,  equality  before  God,  and  human  rights  were  ob- 
scured during  the  long  centuries,  —  obscured  sometimes  by 
the  very  institution  whose  chief  aim  is  to  scatter  light  and 
give  gladness  to  men.  It  has  remained  for  modern  educa- 
tion to  rediscover  the  educational  principles  which  the 
Great  Teacher  promulgated,  and  which  through  the  strug- 
gle of  centuries  failed  of  recognition,  and  bore  indifferent 
fruit. 

Among  the  many  social  and  political  changes  that  have 
taken  place  during  the  last  two  centuries,  we  may  mention 
a  few  that  have  a  direct  influence  upon  education.  Preced- 
ing centuries  had  prepared  the  way,  —  had  broken  the 
ground  and  sowa  the  seed,  and  now  the  world  was  ready 
to  reap  an  abundant  harvest. 

The  great  political  events  of  this  period  may  be  briefly 
summarized  as  follows  :  — 

1 .  The   abolition    of  human  slavery.  —  Great   Britain, 
Spain,  France,  Russia,  and  finally  our  own  country  have 
forever  removed  the  shackles  of  the  slave  within  their  bor- 
ders.    Perhaps  the  greatest  of  all  emancipation  acts  was 
that  of  Russia,  which,  in  1861,  without  bloodshed,  and  with- 
out serious  disturbance,  by  royal  decree,  set  free  forty  mil- 
lion serfs.     The  abolition  of  slavery  in  nearly  all  civilized 
countries  is  the  greatest  political  triumph  of  Christian  civi- 
lization.     Without  this  there  could  never  have  come  that 
higher  intellectual  emancipation  which  is  the  aim  sought 
in  all  education. 

2.  The  extension  of  political  rights.  —  This  is  another 
victory  that  must  be  credited  to  the  period  under  discus- 
sion.    At  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century  there 
was  scarcely  a  nation  that  acknowledged  the  right  of  the 


EIGHTEENTH  AND  NINETEENTH  CENTURIES     243 

individual  to  a  part  in  government,  or  to  personal  freedom. 
Men  were  in  vassalage  to  their  immediate  lord,  who,  in  turn, 
was  obliged  to  acknowledge  the  "  divine  right "  of  the  king 
over  him.  With  the  exception  of  Switzerland,  who  for  cen- 
turies had  maintained  her  freedom,  and  of  England,  who  had 
secured  the  rights  of  man  only  by  much  bloodshed,  there 
was  scarcely  a  people  in  the  world  that  possessed  the  right 
of  self-government.  Even  England  had  secured  that  right 
only  in  the  latter  half  of  the  seventeenth  century  under  the 
leadership  of  Cromwell.  This  right  she  did  not  concede 
to  her  colonies,  however,  until  the  American  Revolution 
wrested  her  richest  dependency  from  her,  and  forever 
established  the  principle  of  self-government  for  a  sov- 
ereign people. 

Immediately  following  the  American  Revolution  came 
the  French  Revolution,  which  taught  the  Old  World  the 
ideas  so  heroically  conceived,  so  bravely  supported,  and  so 
successfully  realized  in  the  New  World.  Nor  is  this  all. 
The  same  principle  has  compelled  the  rulers  of  most  of  the 
European  nations  to  divide  the  responsibility  of  govern- 
ment with  their  subjects,  and  to  grant  their  people  enlarged 
powers  but  little  short  of  absolute  sovereignty. 

3.  Science  has  been  recognized  as  a  poiverful  instrument 
of  civilization. — Through  scientific  discoveries  there  has 
been  a  wonderful  accession  to  material  wealth,  invention 
has  been  stimulated,  and  progress  has  been  made  in  all 
directions.  The  spirit  of  investigation  has  been  fostered, 
old  theories  and  superstitions  have  been  abandoned,  and 
truth  has  been  established  upon  their  ruins.  In  this 
direction  more  has  been  done  by  science  during  the  eight- 
eenth and  nineteenth  centuries  than  during  the  whole 
previous  history  of  the  world.  Man  has  now  become 
master  of  heretofore  unknown  forces  which  he  may  utilize 


244  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION' 

as  a  blessing  for  the  human  race.  We  shall  see  in  later 
pages  that  scientific  investigation  has  become  the  greatest 
educational  principle  of  modern  times. 

4.  Religions  freedom  has  been  attained.  —  The  sixteenth 
and  seventeenth  centuries  witnessed  many  struggles  for 
religious  liberty,  which  resulted  in  no  decided  victory.  It 
was  not  until  the  last  two  centuries  that  complete  religious 
freedom  was  gained.  Men  are  no  longer  bound  to  accept 
ecclesiastical  decrees  without  question,  but  every  one  may 
weigh  and  consider,  and  freely  decide  for  himself.  Civil 
law  protects,  civil  society  sustains,  and  public  opinion 
justifies  men  in  the  exercise  of  personal  liberty  in  religious 
matters. 

By  the  realization  of  these  great  principles  educational 
progress  has  been  encouraged.  The  greatest  obstacles 
have  been  removed,  and  the  future  opens  with  possibilities 
of  universal  brotherhood,  universal  peace,  and  universal 
education. 

It  remains  for  us  to  study  some  of  the  men  who  have 
contributed  to  the  educational  progress  of  the  eighteenth 
and  nineteenth  centuries,  to  trace  the  chief  movements  in 
the  intellectual  development  of  the  race,  and  to  examine 
the  school  systems  of  the  representative  nations  of  the 
world  at  the  present  time. 


CHAPTER  XXXVI 

MODERN  EDUCATORS 

Literature.  —  Davidson,  Rousseau  ;  Graham,  Rousseau  ;  Morley, 
Life  of  Rousseau  ;  Rousseau,  Emile ;  Munroe,  Educational  Ideal  ; 
Vogel,  Geschichte  der  Padagogik  ;  Quick,  Educational  Reformers  ; 
Weir,  The  Key  to  Rousseau's  Emile  (article  in  Educational  Review, 
Vol.  XVI,  p.  6r)  ;  Compayre,  History  of  Pedagogy. 


ROUSSEAU   (1712-1778) 

JEAN  JACQUES  ROUSSEAU  was  born  in  Geneva,  Switzer- 
land- His  father  was  a  watchmaker,  and  upon  him 
devolved  the  education  of  the  boy,  as  the  mother  died 
in  childbirth.  Rousseau's  father  was  a  man  of  dissipated 
habits,  careless  of  responsibility,  and  of  very  violent  tem- 
per. He  interested  himself  in  his  son  far  enough  to  teach 
him  to  read,  and  supplied  him  with  the  worthless  novels 
which  he  himself  was  fond  of  reading.  This  unwise 
course  doubtless  had  much  to  do  in  shaping  the  character 
of  the  boy.  Probably  it  was*the  evil  effects  of  this  early 
literature  that  led  Rousseau  later  in  life  to  oppose  teaching 
young  children  to  read.  Quick  says,  "  Rousseau  professed 
a  hatred  of  books,  which  he  said  kept  the  student  so  long 
engaged  upon  the  thoughts  of  other  people  as  to  have  no 
time  to  make  a  store  of  his  own." 

Abandoned  by  his  father  at  the  age  of  ten,  he  was  taken 
into  the  family  of  his  uncle,  who  apprenticed  him,  first  to 
a  notary,  and  afterward  to  an  engraver.  At  the  age  of 

245 


246  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

sixteen  he  ran  away,  and  began  a  life  of  vagabondage. 
While  yet  a  young  man,  he  became  involved  in  intrigues, 
which,  according  to  his  own  account  in  his  "  Confessions," 
were  no  credit  to  him.  Madame  de  Warens,  a  young 
widow  with  whom  he  lived  for  some  years,  sent  him  to 
school  at  St.  Lazare,  where  he  studied  the  classics  and 
music ;  but  he  soon  lapsed  again  into  vagabondage.  He 
picked  up  a  little  music,  and  attempted  to  give  lessons  in  it, 
but  with  small  success.  He  also  took  a  position  as  private 
tutor,  but  he  had  no  talent  for  teaching.  Later  in  life  he 
married  Therese  le  Vasseur,  a  woman  from  the  common 
ranks  of  life!  She  boreliim  five  children,  all  of  whom 
he  committed  to  foundling  hospitals  without  means  of 
identification.  He  did  this  because  he  was  not  willing 
that  his  own  comfort  or  plans  should  be  disturbed  by  the 
presence  of  children.  Rousseau  had  reason  to  regret  this 
heartless  and  unnatural  course  when,  in  later  years,  he 
sought  in  vain  to  find  some  trace  of  his  children.  Com- 
payre"  says,  "  If  he  loved  to  observe  children,  he  observed, 
alas,  only  the  children  of  others.  There  is  nothing  sadder 
than  that  page  of  the  '  Confessions,'  in  which  he  relates 
how  he  often  placed  himself  at  the  window  to  observe  the 
dismission  of  a  school,  in  order  to  listen  to  the  conversa- 
tions of  children  as  a  furtive  and  unseen  observer !  " 1 

4 

In  1/49  Rousseau  successfully  competed  for  a  prize 
offered  by  the  Academy_of_Dijon  on  the  subject,  "Has  the 
restoration  of  the  sciences  contributed  to  purify  or  to 
corrupt  manners  ? "  Rousseau  entered  this  contest  quite 
accidentally.  He  saw  the  notice  of  the  contest  in  a  news- 
paper, and  decided  at  once  to  compete.  Of  this  event  he 
says,  "  If  ever  anything  resembled  a  sudden  inspiration, 
it  was  the  movement  which  began  in  me  as  I  read  this. 

1  "  History  of  Pedagogy,"  p.  286. 


MODERN  EDUCATORS— ROUSSEAU  247 

All  at  once  I  felt  myself  dazzled  by  a  thousand  sparkling 
lights ;  crowds  of  vivid  ideas  thronged  into  my  mind  with 
a  force  and  confusion  which  threw  me  into  unspeakable 
agitation ;  I  felt  my  head  whirling  in  a  giddiness  like  that 
of  intoxication.  A  violent  palpitation  oppressed  me ;  un- 
able to  walk  for  difficulty  of  breathing,  I  sank  under  one 
of  the  trees  of  the  avenue,  and  passed  half  an  hour  there 
in  such  a  condition  of  excitement  that  when  I  rose  I  saw 
that  the  front  of  my  waistcoat  was  all  wet  with  tears, 
though  I  was  wholly  unconscious  of  shedding  them.  Ah, 
if  I  could  have  written  the  quarter  of  what  I  saw  and  felt 
under  that  tree,  with  what  clearness  should  I  have  brought 
out  all  the  contradictions  of  our  social  system ;  with  what 
simplicity  should  I  have  demonstrated  that  man  is  good 
naturally,  and  that  by  institution  only  is  he  made  bad." 

This  essay  made  him  famous,  and  its  publication  was  the 
beginning  of  a  remarkable  literary  career.  His  principal 
literary  works  are  his  "  Confessions,"  in  which  he  declares 
that  he  conceals  nothing  concerning  himself ;  the  "Social 
Contract,"  an  anti-monarchic  work,  which  many  believe  in- 
cited the  French  Revolution ;  "  Helo'fse,"  a  novel  over- 
strained in  sentiment  and  immoral  in  its  teachings,  but 
"  full  of  pathos  and  knowledge  of  the  human  heart "  ;  and 
"  Emile,"  his  greatest  work,  which  contains  his  educational 
theories.  The  "Emile"1  was  an  epoch-making  book,  which 
excited  great  interest  throughout  Europe.  It  is  said  that 
the  philosopher  Emanuel  Kant  became  so  absorbed  in 
reading  it  that  he  forgot  to  take  his  daily  walk. 

Pedagogy.  —  (a)  Rousseau's  first  principle  is,  "  Every- 
thing is  good  as  it  comes  from  the  hands  of  the  Author  of 
nature ;  everything  degenerates  in  the  hands  of  man." 
It  follows,  then,  that  education  has  only  to  prevent  the 

1  "  Schoolmaster  in  Literature,"  pp.  40-63. 


248  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION' 

entrance  of  evil,  and  let  nature  continue  the  work  begun. 
It  is  to  be  a  negative,  as  well  as  a  natural,  process.  The 
fallacy  of  this  principle  is  very  forcibly  shown  by  Vogel l 
as  follows  :  "The  very  first  sentence  of  '  Emile,'  that  man 
by  nature  is  good,  is  a  fundamental  error ;  for  by  nature, 
that  is,  from  birth,  man  is  neither  good  nor  bad,  but  mor- 
ally indifferent.  Only  when  the  individual  possesses  ma- 
ture self-consciousness  does  he  have  a  correct  idea  of  good 
and  evil.  If  man  by  nature  is  good,  it  is  inexplicable  how 
evil  can  originate  within  him.  External  things  may,  indeed, 
furnish  motives  to  evil,  but  are  never  in  themselves  evil ; 
the  evil  arises  rather  from  the  conduct  of  the  individual 
toward  outside  objects.  If,  then,  evil  does  not  come 
•from  without,  and  is  not  by  nature  already  within  the 
heart,  it  is  impossible  that  there  shall  be  such  a  thing  as 
evil." 

(b)  The  first  education  is  physical  and  it  begins  at  birth. 
As  the  physical  wants  of  the  child  are  natural  they  should 
be  satisfied,  but  the  clothing  should  be  of  such  character 
as  not  to  interfere  with  the  perfect  freedom  of  the  body. 
Great  care  must  be  taken  to  distinguish  between  the  real 
wants  of  the  child  and  its  passing  whims.     To  gratify  the 
latter  because  of  the  crying  of  the  child  will  tend  to  form 
bad  habits.     In  this  connection  may  be  taught  the  first 
moral  lessons.    It  thus  becomes  important  that  the  speech, 
gestures,  and  expressions  of  the  young  child  shall  be  care- 
fully studied.     This  is  the  first  suggestion  of  the  necessity 
for  child  study.     The  idea  was  later  developed  by  Pesta- 
lozzi  and  Froebel,  and  is  one  of  the  most  important  fea- 
tures of  recent  pedagogical  activity. 

(c)  The   child's   second    period  begins  with  his  ability 

1  "Geschichte  der  Padagogik,"  p.  127.     See  also  Compayre,  "History  of 
Pedagogy,"  p.  286. 


MODERN  EDUCATORS— ROUSSEAU  249 

to  speak  and  continues  till  the  twelfth  year.  No  attempt 
must  be  made  to  educate  the  child  for  his  future,  but  he 
must  be  allowed  to  get  the  full  enjoyment  of  childhood  by 
freedom  to  play  as  he  will.  Let  him  run,  jump,  and  test 
his  strength,  thereby  acquiring  judgment  of  the  material 
forces  about  him,  and  learning  how  to  take  care  of  him- 
self. Leave  him  free  to  do  what  he  will,  let  him  have 
what  he  wishes,  but,  as  far  as  possible,  he  should  be  led 
to  depend  upon  himself  to  satisfy  his  wants.  Give  him 
perfect  freedom,  for  freedom  is  the  fundamental  law  of 
education.  If  he  disobeys,  do  not  punish  him, —  disobedi- 
ence works  its  own  punishment;  therefore,  do  not  com- 
mand him.  The  training  of  the  senses  is  the  important 
work  of  this  period ;  therefore,  there  should  be  as  little 
moral  training  as  possible,  and  absolutely  no  religious 
training.  The  only  moral  idea  for  the  child  to  learn  is 
that  of  ownership.  He  is  to  be  prevented  from  vice  in 
a  negative  manner,  that  is,  by  never  being  allowed  to 
meet  it.  "  The  only  habit  that  a  child  should  be  allowed 
to  form  is  to  contract  no  habit." 

He  is  to  have  a  preceptor  devoted  entirely  to  him,  not 
to  instruct  or  control  him,  but  to  lead  him  to  discover  and 
experience  for  himself.  In  regard  to  his  intellectual  in- 
struction, Rousseau  says  of  Emile  at  twelve  years  of  age, 
"  that  he  has  not  learned  to  distinguish  his  right  hand 
from  his  left."  Books  are  entirely  proscribed,  and,  indeed, 
they  are  useless  to  him  as  he  cannot  read ;  the  only  in- 
tellectual knowledge  the  child  receives  is  that  which  comes 
from  things  through  his  own  experience. 

This  is  a  brief  outline  of  the  erratic,  impossible,  and 
inconsistent  training  that  Rousseau  provides  for  Emile 
during  this  period  when  the  foundation  of  character  in  the 
child  must  be  laid.  Greard  says,  "  Rousseau  goes  beyond 


250  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

progressive  education  to  recommend  an  education  in  frag- 
ments, so  to  speak,  which  isolates  the  faculties  in  order  to 
develop  them  one  after  another,  which  establishes  an  abso- 
lute line  of  demarkation  between  the  different  ages,  and 
which  ends  in  distinguishing  three  stages  of  progress  in 
the  soul.  Rousseau's  error  on  this  point  is  in  forgetting 
that  the  education  of  the  child  ought  to  prepare  for  the 
education  of  the  young  man." 

(d)  The  third  period  extends  from  the  twelfth  to  the  fif- 
teenth year.  It  is  the  period  of  intellectual  development. 
With  no  habits  of  thought  or  study,  being  little  else  than 
a  robust  animal,  in  three  years  Emile  is  to  obtain  all  needed 
intellectual  training.  True,  Rousseau  excludes  everything 
that  is  not  useful,  and  places  limitations  even  on  that. 
For  example,  he  naturally  lays  great  stress  upon  the 
physical  sciences  which  are  to  be  taught  in  connection 
with  things  themselves,  —  out  of  doors,  by  travel,  and  in 
actual  life ;  but  he  allows  no  history,  or  grammar,  or  an- 
cient languages.  No  books  are  permitted  save  "  Robinson 
Crusoe,"  which  Rousseau  finds  entirely  suitable  for  Emile. 
A  trade  is  to  be  learned  during  this  period. 

While  in  general  we  condemn  Rousseau's  scheme  of 
education,  there  is  much  in  his  methods  that  is  most 
excellent.  On  this  point  Compayr6  comments  as  follows : 
"  At  least  in  the  general  method  which  he  commends, 
Rousseau  makes  amends  for  the  errors  in  his  plan  of 
study  :  '  Do  not  treat  the  child  to  discourses  which  he 
cannot  understand.  No  descriptions,  no  eloquence,  no 
figures  of  speech.  Be  content  to  present  to  him  appro- 
priate objects.  Let  us  transform  our  sensations  into  ideas. 
But  let  us  not  jump  at  once  from  sensible  to  intellectual 
objects.  Let  us  always  proceed  slowly  from  one  sensible 
notion  to  another.  In  general,  let  us  never  substitute 


MODERN  EDUCATORS— ROUSSEAU  251 

the  sign  for  the  thing,  except  when  it  is  impossible 
for  us  to  show  the  thing.'  " 1 

(e}  The  fourth  period  of  education  begins  at  fifteen,  the 
period  of  adolescence.  At  this  time,  "  Emile  will  know 
nothing  of  history,  nothing  of  humanity,  nothing  of  art 
and  literature,  nothing  of  God ;  but  he  will  know  a 
manual  trade."  Rousseau  himself  says,  "  Emile  has  but 
little  knowledge,  but  that  which  he  has  is  really  his  own ; 
he  knows  nothing  by  halves."  He  has  a  mind  which,  "if 
not  instructed,  is  at  least  capable  of  being  instructed." 
The  remaining  work  to  be  done  in  the  education  of  Emile 
consists  in  training  the  sentiments  of  affection,  the  moral 
and  the  religious  sentiments.  The  feeling  of  love  for  his 
fellow-beings  is  now  to  be  cultivated.  The  error  of  this  is 
shown  by  Compayre,  who  says,  "  For  fifteen  years  Rous- 
seau leaves  the  heart  of  Emile  unoccupied.  .  .  .  Rousseau 
made  the  mistake  of  thinking  that  a  child  can  be  taught 
to  love  as  he  is  taught  to  read  and  write,  and  that  lessons 
could  be  given  to  Emile  in  feeling  just  as  lessons  are 
given  to  him  in  geometry." 

In  morals  Rousseau  taught  that  the  first  duty  of  every 
one  is  to  take  care  of  himself ;  we  must  love  ourselves 
first  of  all,  and  find  our  greatest  interest  in  those  things 
that  best  serve  us.  We  must  seek  that  which  is  useful 
to  us  and  avoid  what  harms  us,  instead  of  loving  our 
enemies  and  doing  good  to  those  that  hate  us,  as  taught 
by  Christ.  We  must  love  those  who  love  us,  while  we 
must  avoid  and  hate  those  who  hate  us. 

As  to  religion,  Emile  does  not  yet  know  at  fifteen 
that  he  has  a  soul,  and  Rousseau  thinks  that  perhaps  the 
eighteenth  year  is  still  too  early  for  him  to  learn  that  fact ; 
for,  if  he  tries  to  learn  it  before  the  proper  time,  he  runs 

1  "  History  of  Pedagogy,"  p.  298. 


252  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

the  risk  of  never  really  knowing  that  he  possesses  an 
immortal  soul.  But  as  religion  furnishes  a  check  upon 
the  passions,  it  should  be  taught  to  the  boy  when  eighteen 
years  of  age.  He  is  not  to  be  instructed  in  the  doctrines 
of  any  particular  sect,  but  should  be  allowed  to  select  that 
religious  belief  which  most  strongly  appeals  to  his  reason. 
Modern  investigation  has  proven  the  utter  fallacy  of  Rous- 
seau's teachings  in  this  respect.  Indeed,  it  seems  to  be 
established  that  the  most  orthodox  period  of  the  child's 
life  occurs  before  the  fifteenth  year,  the  time  when  Rous- 
seau would  begin  his  religious  training.  Conformable  to 
this  truth,  many  sects  confirm  children  and  receive  them 
into  the  church  at  or  before  the  fifteenth  year.1 

(/)  Having  brought  Emile  to  the  period  of  life  at  which 
he  is  to  marry,  Rousseau  proceeds  to  create  in  Sophie 
the  ideal  wife.  It  is  not  the  education  of  women  as 
such  that  Rousseau  discusses,  but  their  education  with 
reference  to  man.  He  says,  "  The  whole  education  of 
women  should  be  relative  to  men ;  to  please  them,  to 
be  useful  to  them,  to  make  themselves  honored  and 
loved  by  them,  to  educate  the  young,  to  care  for  the 
older,  to  advise  them,  to  console  them,  to  make  life 
agreeable  and  sweet  to  them,  —  these  are  the  duties  of 
women  in  every  age."  Consequently  the  sole  instruction 
woman  needs  is  in  household  duties,  in  care  of  children, 
in  ways  to  add  to  the  happiness  of  her  husband.  Her 
own  happiness  or  development  does  not  enter  into 
Rousseau's  scheme.  This  is  the  weakest  part  of  his 
educational  theory.  The  world  is  gradually  awakening 

1  See  address  of  Professor  Earl  Barnes,  Proceedings  of  the  National 
Educational  Association  for  1893,  p.  765.  Also  article  by  Dr.  G.  Stanley 
Hall  in  Pedagogical  Seminary,  Vol.  I,  p.  196.  Note  also  the  religious  de- 
velopment of  Laura  Bridgman. 


MODERN  EDUCATORS— ROUSSEAU  253 

to  the  fact  that  woman's  intellectual  capacity  is  not 
inferior  to  that  of  man,  and  the  prejudices  of  ages  are 
slowly  disappearing. 

Rousseau's  pedagogical  theories  made  a  profound  im- 
pression throughout  Europe,  and  though  often  inconsist- 
ent, extravagant,  and  visionary,  they  set  the  world  to 
thinking  of  the  child  and  his  psychological  development. 
A  new  direction  was  thus  given  to  educational  theory 
and  practice,  and  upon  this  basis  Pestalozzi,  Froebel,  and 
other  modern  educators  have  built.  Rousseau  must,  there- 
fore, be  reckoned  among  the  greatest  pedagogical  writers  of 
modern  times.  Karl  Schmidt  pronounces  the  "  Emile  "  "a 
Platonic  republic  of  education,  —  nevertheless,  Rousseau's 
work  is  a  great  universal  achievement,  the  importance  of 
which  Goethe  recognizes  when  he  calls  the  book  the 
nature-gospel  of  education."  1 

1 "  Geschichte  der  Padagogik,"  Vol.  Ill,  p.  559. 


CHAPTER   XXXVII 

MODERN  EDUCATORS    (Continued) 
BASEDOW1    (1723-1790) 

THE  name  of  Basedow  is  connected  with  what  is  known 
as  the  Philanthropinic  experiment.  He  was  born  at  Ham- 
burg, his  father  being  a  wigmaker.  Not  being  appreciated 
in  his  home,  the  son  ran  away  and  bound  himself  out 
as  servant  in  the  household  of  a  gentleman.  Through 
the  influence  of  this  man,  who  discovered  his  extraor- 
dinary abilities,  he  was  reconciled  with  his  father,  and 
returned  home.  He  was  sent  to  the  Gymnasium  at  Ham- 
burg, and  afterward,  through  the  assistance  of  friends, 
went  to  the  university  of  Leipsic,  where  he  studied  theol- 
ogy. Here  he  lived  a  rather  wild  life,  and  upon  the  com- 
pletion of  his  studies  was  found  too  unorthodox  to  take 
orders.  Accordingly,  he  became  tutor  (Hauslehrer)  to 
the  children  of  Herr  von  Quaalen.  In  this  position  he 
showed  great  aptitude  and  originality  in  the  instruction  of 
children.  His  method  of  teaching  included  conversation, 
adaptation  of  play,  and  use  of  the  woods,  fields,  plants, 
birds,  and  other  works  of  nature. 

"  Owing  to  his  original  manner  of  teaching,  Basedow 
obtained  the  best  results.  In  teaching  Latin,  for  instance, 
he  began  by  pointing  to  objects  and  giving  their  Latin 

1  Special  References,  Williams,  "History  of  Modern  Education";  Quick, 
"Educational  Reformers,"  pp.  144,  288;  Lang,  "Basedow"  (Teachers' 
Manuals,  No.  16). 

254 


MODERN  EDUCATORS  — BASEDOW  255 

names.  His  pupils,  in  a  very  short  time,  learned  to  speak 
Latin  almost  as  well  as  their  native  language.  Basedow 
himself  learned  French,  after  the  same  manner,  of  the 
governess  of  the  house."  J 

He  next  became  Professor  of  Morals  and  Polite  Litera- 
ture at  Soroe,  Denmark,  where  his  unorthodox  writings 
again  led  him  into  trouble.  He  was  removed  to  the 
Gymnasium  at  Altona.  Rousseau's  "  Emile  "  produced  a 
profound  impression  upon  him,  as  it  had  done  upon  many 
other  thinkers  in  Europe,  and  many  of  his  theories  are 
probably  traceable  to  that  book.  Basedow  was  convinced 
of  the  need  of  a  radical  reform  in  the  schools  of  Germany, 
and  set  himself  the  task  of  effecting  it.  Bernsdorf,  the 
Danish  minister  of  education,  became  interested  in  his 
writings,  and,  together  with  several  of  the  crowned  heads 
of  Europe,  assisted  him  in  bringing  out  his  "  Elementary 
Book "  (Elementarbuch),  which  foreshadowed  his  plans. 
It  was  modeled  after  the  "  Orbis  Pictus  "  of  Comenius. 
The  interest  of  these  distinguished  patrons  shows  how 
urgent  was  the  need  of  an  educational  reform.  Basedow 
also  made  the  acquaintance  of  the  great  literary  men  of 
the  time,  chief  among  whom  was  Goethe.  In  temperament 
he  was  misanthropic  and  peevish,  owing  in  part,  doubtless, 
to  ill  health  brought  on  by  overwork  and  worry. 

The  Philanthropic  —  Indirectly  through  Goethe,  Prince 
Leopold  of  Dessau  was  attracted  to  Basedow.  The  prince 
determined  to  found  an  institute  in  which  the  plans  of  the 
great  educator  could  be  carried  out.  The  institute,  called 
the  Philanthropin,  was  established,  and  became  cele- 
brated throughout  Europe.  Quick  says  :  "  Then,  for  the 
first  and  probably  for  the  last  time,  a  school  was  started 
in  which  use  and  wont  were  entirely  set  aside,  and  every- 

1  Lang,  "  Basedow,"  p.  6. 


256  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

thing  done  on  'improved  principles.'  Such  a  bold  enter- 
prise attracted  the  attention  of  all  interested  in  education, 
far  and  near ;  but  it  would  seem  that  few  parents  con- 
sidered their  own  children  vilia  corpora  (vile  bodies),  on 
whom  experiments  might  be  made  for  the  public  good. 
When,  in  May,  1776,  a  number  of  schoolmasters  and 
others  collected  from  different  parts  of  Germany,  and  even 
from  beyond  Germany,  to  be  present  by  Basedow's  invita- 
tion at  an  examination  of  the  children,  they  found  only 
thirteen  pupils  in  the  Philanthropin,  including  Basedow's 
own  son  and  daughter." 1 

The  main  purpose  of  the  Philanthropin  was  to  give 
Basedow  an  opportunity  to  carry  out  his  new  educational 
ideas.  A  prominent  feature  of  the  undertaking  was  that 
it  should  be  a  model  institute  "for  the  preparation  of 
teachers  in  the  theory  and  practice  of  the  new  education." 
The  institution  was  to  be  a  "  school  of  true  humanity.  Its 
name  was  to  give  evidence  of  its  object  —  the  education  of 
youth  in  accordance  with  the  laws  of  nature  and  humanity." 
In  it  Basedow  was  to  exemplify  his  ideas  of  education. 
The  best  of  teachers  were  to  be  employed,  the  best  appli- 
ances furnished,  and  the  instruction  was  to  be  founded 
entirely  on  sense-perception.  The  Philanthropin  was 
opened  in  1774,  and  at  once  awoke  universal  interest. 

But  this  school,  conceived  in  love  for  humanity,  founded 
with  the  noblest  of  purposes,  and  exemplifying  much  of 
sound  educational  philosophy,  was  destined  to  be  short- 
lived. It  was  abandoned  in  less  than  twenty  years.  This 
downfall  was  owing  to  several  causes,  some  of  which  may 
be  mentioned,  i.  The  institution  was  purely  secular  in 
character,  and  the  world  was  not  yet  ready  for  this.  Parents 
were  suspicious  of  a  non-sectarian  school,  the  idea  of 

1  "Educational  Reformers,"  p.  150. 


MODERN  EDUCATORS— BASEDOW  257 

which  was  so  contrary  to  that  of  the  traditional  church- 
school.  Hence  the  small  number  of  pupils  in  the  Philan- 
thropm,  even  at  the  height  of  its  prosperity  under  Basedow. 

2.  Altogether  too  many  subjects  were  included  in 
the  course.  Quick  outlines  the  work  undertaken  as  fol- 
lows:  "(i)  Man.  Here  he  would  use  the  pictures  of 
foreigners  and  wild  men,  also  a  skeleton,  a  hand  in  spirits, 
and  other  objects  still  more  appropriate  to  a  surgical 
museum.  (2)  Animals.  Only  such  animals  are  to  be 
depicted  as  it  is  useful  to  know  about,  because  there  is 
much  that  ought  to  b'e  known,  and  a  good  method  of  in- 
struction must  shorten  rather  than  increase  the  hours  of 
study.  Articles  of  commerce  made  from  the  animals  may 
also  be  exhibited.  (3)  Trees  and  plants.  Only  the  most 
important  are  to  be  selected.  Of  these  the  seeds  also 
must  be  shown,  and  cubes  formed  of  the  different  woods. 
Gardeners'  and  farmers'  implements  are  to  be  explained. 
(4)  Mineral  and  chemical  substances.  (5)  Mathemati- 
cal instruments  for  weighing  and  measuring ;  also  the  air 
pump,  siphon,  and  the  like.  The  form  and  motion  of  the 
earth  are  to  be  explained  with  globes  and  maps.  (6) 
Trades.  The  use  of  various  tools  is  to  be  taught.  (7) 
History.  This  is  to  be  illustrated  by  engravings  of  his- 
torical events.  (8)  Commerce.  Samples  of  commodities 
may  be  produced.  (9)  The  younger  children  should  be 
shown  pictures  of  familiar  objects  about  the  house  and  its 
surroundings."  x 

There  are  very  many  suggestive  ideas  in  Basedow's 
course,  which  have  been  adopted  in  modern  schools ;  but 
the  trouble  was  that  he  demanded  too  much,  and  he 
himself  acknowledged  later  in  life  that  "  he  had  exag- 
gerated notions  of  the  amount  boys  were  capable  of 

1  "Educational  Reformers,"  p.  151. 

HIST.   OF   ED.  —  17 


258  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

learning,"  and  accordingly  his  curriculum  was  very  much 
shortened. 

3.  Another  reason  for  the  failure  of  the  Philanthropin 
was  Basedow's  indiscriminate  condemnation  of  everything 
that  had  been  done  before,  and  of  all  who  failed  to  agree 
with  him.     This  awoke  the  antagonism  of  teachers  every- 
where.    All  reformers  are  apt  to  be  radical  in  their  own 
views  and  denunciatory  of  the  opinions  of  others.     Had 
there  been  less  to  criticise  in  Basedow  himself,  he  would 
doubtless   have   triumphed   over  all  opposition.     But  his 
educational  theories  and  practices  did  not  produce  the  re- 
sults which  he  predicted  for  them,  and  his  opponents  were 
quick  to  mark  every  weakness  that  his  system  betrayed. 

4.  More  fatal  still,  perhaps,  was  the  unfitness  of  Base- 
dow for  the  directorship  of  the  institution.     He  was  capri- 
cious, lacking  in  self-command  and  proper  balance,  visionary, 
and  often  suspicious  of  the  teachers  under  his  direction. 
Such   causes   prevented  the  experiment  at   Dessau   from 
fulfilling  the  bright  hopes   of    Basedow   and  the  friends 
who  assisted  him  in  starting  the  enterprise. 

Basedow  retired  after  four  years'  leadership,  and  the 
institution  continued  for  a  few  years  with  varying  success, 
under  such  men  as  Campe,  Salzmann,  and  Matthison. 
Yet,  when  the  Philanthropin  was  closed  in  1793,  the 
teachers,  dispersed  throughout  Germany,  carried  the  new 
gospel  wherever  they  went,  arousing  fresh  interest  in 
education  and  doing  much  for  its  advancement. 

Quick  thinks  that  Basedow's  system  possessed  great 
merits  "  for  children,  say,  between  the  ages  of  six  and 
ten."  Kant  was  greatly  disappointed  at  the  result.  Rous- 
seau's "  Emile "  had  awakened  his  interest  in  education, 
and  he  looked  to  the  experiment  at  Dessau  for  an  exem- 
plification of  the  new  ideals.  His  estimate  of  the  work 


MODERN  EDUCATORS— BASEDOW  259 

accomplished  is  as  follows  :  "  Experience  shows  that  often 
in  our  experiments  we  get  quite  opposite  results  from  what 
we  had  anticipated.  We  see,  too,  that  since  experiments 
are  necessary,  it  is  not  in  the  power  of  one  generation  to 
form  a  complete  plan  of 'education.  The  only  experimental 
school  which,  to  some  extent,  made  a  beginning  in  clearing 
the  road,  was  the  Institute  at  Dessau.  This  praise  at  least 
must  be  allowed,  notwithstanding  the  many  faults  which 
could  be  brought  up  against  it — faults  which  are  sure  to 
show  themselves  when  we  come  to  the  results  of  our  experi- 
ments, and  which  merely  prove  that  fresh  experiments 
are  necessary.  It  was  the  only  school  in  which  teachers 
had  liberty  to  work  according  to  their  own  methods  and 
schemes,  and  where  they  were  in  free  communication  both 
among  themselves  and  with  all  learned  men  throughout 
Germany."  l 

Writings.  —  Basedow.'s  chief  educational  writing  is  the 
book  called  the  "  Elementary."  The  "  Book  of  Method  " 
was  the  first  to  appear,  and  was  really  the  first  part  of  the 
"  Elementary."  Concerning  the  "  Book  of  Method,"  Lang 
says,  "This  famous  manual  was  undoubtedly  the  greatest 
of  Basedow's  educational  writings.  ...  It  was  full  of 
valuable  suggestions.  It  set  educators  to  thinking,  and 
has  been  a  powerful  motor  in  bringing  about  a  change  in 
school  instruction." 

The  "  Elementary,"  containing  Basedow's  complete 
scheme  of  education,  has  been  called  the  "  Orbis  Pictus 
of  the  eighteenth  century."  The  general  opinion  is  that 
Basedow  obtained  the  root  ideas  of  this  work  from  Co- 
menius,  Locke,  and  Rousseau.  There  is  but  little  that 
is  original  in  his  pedagogical  principles,  but  he  made  an 
effort  to  carry  out  the  progressive  teachings  which  had 

1  Kant,  "  Ueber  Padagogik." 


260  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

entered  into  the  theories  of  advanced  thinkers  but  had 
not  been  worked  into  practice.  Still,  the  problem  of 
education  became  through  Basedow  better  understood,  and 
he  is  deserving  of  a  place  among  the  great  educators  of 
the  world  for  his  experiment  at  Dessau  toward  the  solution 
of  that  problem.  The  experiment  was  crude,  but  it  has 
borne  fruit  in  modern  schools  and  their  methods,  in  better 
school  buildings  and  apparatus,  in  trained  teachers,  in 
milder  forms  of  discipline,  in  the  improved  study  of  nature, 
and  in  a  broader  and  more  philanthropic  view  of  man's 
duty  to  his  fellow-man. 

Jacotot  (1770-1840).  —  Perhaps  the  most  famous  of  the 
French  educators  and  writers  of  this  period  was  Jacotot, 
for  a  time  professor  of  languages  and  mathematics  at  Paris, 
and  later  professor  of  the  French  language  and  literature 
at  Lowen.  His  principal  educational  work  is  entitled 
"Universal  Instruction."  Jacotot  is  best  known  for  his 
paradoxes,  two  of  the  most  famous  of  which  are,  "  Every- 
thing is  in  Everything,"  and  "  All  men  have  equal  intelli- 
gence." But  his  method  rather  than  his  paradoxical 
statements  has  proved  his  greatest  contribution  to  educa- 
tional progress.  His  method  consisted  in  the  selection  of 
fundamental  examples  or  types,  having  the  pupils  commit 
them  to  memory,  repeating  this  work  daily,  amplifying  it, 
deriving  the  rules  or  principles  in  relation  to  it,  until  the 
mastery  in  all  directions  is  complete.  Thus  in  studying 
Latin  a  page  of  Caesar  might  be  taken  and  drilled  upon 
until  the  style,  rules  of  grammar,  and  meaning  of  the 
passage  are  mastered;  in  mathematics  the  fundamental 
rules,  —  the  Pythagorean  theorem  must  be  repeated  daily ; 
in  geography  begin  with  a  map  and  master  all  its  details. 
Gain  a  complete  understanding  of  one  subject  before  taking 
up  another.  His  method  attracted  much  attention. 


CHAPTER   XXXVIII 

MODERN  EDUCATORS  (Continued) 
PESTALOZZI   (1746-1827) 

Literature.  —  De  Guimps,  Pestalozzi,  his  Life  and  Works;  Krusi, 
Life,  Work,  and  Influence  of  Pestalozzi ;  Quick,  Educational  Reformers  ; 
Von  Raumer,  Life  and  System  of  Pestalozzi ;  Durrell,  New  Life  in  Edu- 
cation ;  Gill,  Systems  of  Education ;  Skinner,  The  Schoolmaster  in 
Literature  ;  Barnard,  Pestalozzi  and  Pestalozzianism  ;  Vogel,  Geschichte 
des  deutschen  Volksschulwesens ;  Rein,  Encyklopadisches  Handbuch 
der  Padagogik ;  Parker,  History  of  Modern  Elementary  Education. 


JOHANN  HEINRICH  PESTALOZZI  was  born  in  Zurich,  Swit- 
zerland, January  12,  1746.  His  father  was  a  physician  of 
great  intelligence,  and  his  death  before  the  boy  reached 
his  sixth  year  deprived  the  latter  of  a  wise  counselor.  The 
character  of  the  mother  is  shown  by  the  dying  appeal  of 
Pestalozzi's  father  to  his  servant  Babeli :  "  For  God's  sake 
and  in  the  name  of  mercy  do  not  forsake  my  wife.  When 
I  am  dead  she  will  be  helpless,  and  my  children  will  fall 
into  the  hands  of  strangers." 

Babeli  replied,  "  I  will  never  leave  your  wife,  if  it  should 
please  God  to  take  you  hence.  I  will  remain  with  her  till 
death,  if  she  wishes  me  to  do  so,"  a  promise  which  she 
faithfully  kept.  Kriisi  thinks  that,  "  The  sacrifices  of  a 
mother  for  her  children  do  not  show  more  nobility  of  soul 
than  was  displayed  by  this  poor,  uneducated  girl,  who  gave 
up  all  her  worldly  interest  for  a  family  not  her  own."  Who 
can  say  that  Pestalozzi  himself  was  not  inspired  to  his  long 
life  of  devotion  to  the  interests  of  the  lowly  by  the  unselfish 
consecration  of  this  lowly  woman  to  his  family  ? 

261 


262  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

Pestalozzi  did  not  care  for  companions  of  his  own  age. 
He  was  peculiarly  a  mother's  boy,  content  to  grow  up 
dreamy  and  impractical  at  her  quiet  hearthstone.  Conse- 
quently he  was  awkward  and  reserved,  easily  imposed  upon, 
and  lacking  in  self-reliance.  These  qualities  remained  with 
him  as  long  as  he  lived,  and  caused  him  many  painful  fail- 
ures. On  the  other  hand,  the  pious  example  of  his  mother 
and  the  tranquil  life  he  led  with  her  made  the  boy  reflect- 
ive and  imaginative,  while  his  soul  became  filled  with 
great  thoughts  for  the  well-being  of  mankind.  His  grand- 
father, a  country  pastor,  whom  he  often  visited,  by  his 
simple,  godly  life  exerted  a  great  influence  in  shaping 
Pestalozzi' s  religious  character. 

Schooling.  — At  school  he  was  the  butt  of  ridicule  among 
the  scholars  because  of  his  awkwardness,  his  simplicity,  and 
his  ingenuousness.  His  comrades  dubbed  him  "  Harry 
Oddity  of  Folly ville,"  a  nickname  that  carried  no  reproach 
with  it,  but  was  intended  to  express  good-natured  appreci- 
ation of  his  characteristics.  Mr.  Quick  tells  us  that  "his 
good  nature  and  obliging  disposition  gained  him  many 
friends.  No  doubt  his  friends  profited  from  his  willingness 
to  do  anything  for  them.  We  find  that  when,  on  the  shock 
of  an  earthquake,  teachers  and  scholars  alike  rushed  out  of 
the  schoolhouse,  Harry  Oddity  was  the  boy  sent  back  to 
fetch  out  caps  and  books."  While  not  brilliant  as  a  scholar, 
he  was  by  no  means  dull.  He  was  more  ready  in  grasping 
the  content  than  the  form  of  the  subject.  Consequently  all 
through  life  he  never  overcame  his  weakness  in  some  of 
the  commonest  requirements  of  education.1 

1  In  regard  to  the  criticisms  made  against  him  at  Burgdorf,  Pestalozzi  says : 
"  It  was  whispered  that  I  myself  could  not  write,  nor  work  accounts,  nor  even 
read  properly.  Popular  reports  are  not  always  entirely  wrong.  It  is  true  I 
could  not  write,  nor  read,  nor  work  accounts  well." 


MODERN  EDUCATORS—  PESTALOZZ1  263 

Life  Purpose.  —  After  completing  the  work  of  the  ele- 
mentary schools,  he  entered  the  university  of  Zurich, 
where  he  sustained  himself  with  credit.  Even  while 
yet  a  boy  he  joined  a  league  of  students  which  was 
intended  to  resist  injustice.  Of  himself  and  his  fellow- 
students,  he  says,  "  We  decided  to  live  for  nothing 
but  independence,  well-doing,  and  sacrifice  for  love  of 
country." 

Speaking  of  society  as  he  saw  it,  he  says,  "  I  saw 
the  unfortunate  condition  of  all  mankind,  especially  of 
my  own  countrymen,  in  all  its  hollowness.  I  saw  in- 
dulgence despoiling  the  highest  moral,  spiritual,  and 
civil  interests,  and  sapping  the  lifeblood  of  our  race  as 
never  before  in  the  history  of  Europe.  I  saw  finally 
the  people  of  our  nation  steeped  in  poverty,  misery, 
and  universal  want.  From  youth  up  the  purpose  of 
my  life  has  been  to  secure  to  the  poor  of  my  country 
a  happier  fate  by  improving  and  simplifying  their 
educational  privileges.  But  the  only  sure  foundation 
upon  which  we  may  hope  to  secure  national  culture 
and  elevate  the  poor  is  that  of  the  home  where  the  love 
of  father  and  mother  is  the  ruling  principle.  Through 
the  unselfishness,  truth,  strength,  and  purity  of  their 
love,  parents  kindle  faith  in  their  children.  This  leads 
to  that  implicit  obedience  which  is  based  on  confidence 
and.  love." 

f  Love  for  humanity,  desire  to  ameliorate  suffering,  and 
thorough  unselfishness  furnished  the  key  to  Pestalozzi's 
purpose  and  lifework. 

The  Christian  Ministry.  —  It  was  this  lofty  pur- 
pose that  led  him  first  to  attempt  the  work  of  the  Chris- 
tian ministry,  a  work  which  his  aged  grandfather 
encouraged.  But  he  failed  in  his  first  sermon,  and  at 


264  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

once  decided  that  he  had  mistaken  his  calling.  Kriisi1 
says  that  "  he  stopped  short  in  his  sermon  and  made 
mistakes  in  the  Lord's  Prayer.  This  may  have  been  due 
to  embarrassment,  which  made  the  young  minister  for- 
get the  sermon  which  he  had  been  obliged  to  commit 
to  memory.  More  likely,  however,  it  was  an  exalted 
idea  of  the  proper  qualifications  of  a  clergyman,  com- 
pared with  his  own  humble  merits,  which  induced 
him  to  exchange  the  study  of  theology  for  that  of 
law." 

The  Law.  —  His  motive  in  devoting  himself  to  law 
was  the  same  that  had  led  him  to  the  ministry,  —  his 
desire  to  be  a  blessing  to  his  fellow-beings.  He  saw  the 
peasantry  cheated  and  imposed  upon  because  of  their 
ignorance,  and  determined  to  become  their  champion. 
Kriisi  thinks  that  his  study  of  the  law  must  "  have  pro- 
duced negative  results  by  showing  him  the  insufficiency 
of  human'  legislation  to  do  away  with  abuses,  unless 
supported  by  principles  of  charity  and  justice."  He 
therefore  gave  up  this  enterprise  also. 

Farming.  —  The  advice  of  a  dying  friend,  Bluntschli, 
"  Never  embark  in  any  operation  which  might  become 
dangerous  to  your  peace  of  mind,  because  of  the  sim- 
plicity and  tenderness  of  your  disposition,"  may  have 
had  its  effect  upon  Pestalozzi.  He  now  entered  upon  his 
third  venture.  Having  induced  a  wealthy  firm  in  Zurich 
to  advance  him  money,  he  bought  about  one  hundred 
acres  of  unimproved  land  in  the  canton  of  Aargau,  where 
he  proposed  to  raise  madder  as  a  means  of  profit. 
Once  more  his  real  purpose  was  philanthropic,  as  he 
intended  to  show  the  poor  peasants  improved  methods 
of  farming  whereby  they  could  obtain  better  results  for 

1  "  Life,  Work,  and  Influence  of  Pestalozzi,"  p.  17. 


MODERN  EDUCATORS— PESTALOZZI  265 

their  labor  and  thereby  be  enabled  to  live  more  com- 
fortably. He  named  the  place  Neuhof. 

Marriage.  —  At  this  time  he  had  just  passed  his 
twenty-first  year.  We  pause  to  mention  an  event  that 
had  much  to  do  with  his  happiness  and  with  his  later 
life.  He  had  made  the  acquaintance  of  Anna  Schulthess, 
a  young  lady  of  considerable  means,  and  sought  her 
hand  in  marriage.  His  letter  to  her,  proposing  marriage, 
is  remarkable  for  its  frankness,  for  the  ingenuous  con- 
fession of  his  own  weaknesses,  and  for  its  correct 
estimate  of  himself.  A  few  quotations  from  this  letter 
must  suffice.1  "  My  failings,  which  appear  to  me  the 
most  important  in  relation  to  the  future,  are  improvi- 
dence, want  of  caution,  and  want  of  that  presence  of 
mind  which  is  necessary  to  meet  unexpected  changes 
in  my  future  prospects.  I  hope,  by  continued  exertions, 
to  overcome  them ;  but  know  that  I  still  possess  them 
to  a  degree  that  does  not  allow  me  to  conceal  them 
from  the  maiden  I  love.  ...  I  am  further  bound 
to  confess  that  I  shall  place  the  duties  toward  my 
fatherland  in  advance  of  those  to  my  wife,  and  that, 
although  I  mean  to  be  a  tender  husband,  I  shall  be  in- 
exorable even  to  the  tears  of  my  wife,  if  they  should 
ever  try  to  detain  me  from  performing  my  duties  as 
a  citizen,  to  their  fullest  extent.  My  wife  shall  be  the 
confidant  of  my  heart,  the  partner  of  all  my  most  secret 
counsel.  A  great  and  holy  simplicity  shall  reign  in  my 
house.  .  .  .  My  dear  friend,  I  love  you  so  tenderly 
and  fervently  that  this  confession  has  cost  me  much, 
since  it  may  even  take  from  me  the  hope  of  winning  you." 

Anna  was  not  discouraged  by  the  picture  which  the  man 
she  loved  drew  of  himself,  and  she  consented  to  become 

1  Both  Quick  and  Kriisi  give  this  letter  in  full. 


266  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

his  wife.  They  were  married  in  his  twenty-fourth  year, 
and  thus  began  a  long  period  of  happy  wedded  life  that 
extended  over  fifty  years.  Quick  tells  us  that  "the  fore- 
bodings of  the  letter  were  amply  realized,  .  .  .  and  yet  we 
may  well  believe  that  Madame  Pestalozzi  never  repented 
of  her  choice." 

Neuhof.  —  But  to  return  to  Pestalozzi's  experiment  in 
farming,  matters  had  not  progressed  well.  The  Zurich 
capitalists  became  suspicious,  and  after  an  investigation 
decided  to  withdraw  their  support,  thus  precipitating  fail- 
ure. Of  this  Pestalozzi  himself  says,  "  The  cause  of  the 
failure  of  my  undertaking  lay  essentially  and  exclusively  in 
myself,  and  in  my  pronounced  incapacity  for  every  kind  of 
undertaking  which  requires  practical  ability."  One  cannot 
fail  to  admire  the  energy  and  courage  of  the  man,  who, 
conscious  of  his  own  weakness,  still  persevered  in  great 
enterprises  until  he  achieved  success. 

It  was  not  for  himself,  but  for  humanity,  that  Pestalozzi 
labored,  and  no  discouragement  could  daunt,  no  failure 
defeat,  no  lack  of  appreciation  or  misunderstanding  check, 
the  ardor  of  his  zeal  for  the  great  work  that  absorbed  his 
life.  Around  him  were  men  and  women  in  poverty  and 
misery,  whose  children  were  growing  up  in  vice  and  igno- 
rance, to  perpetuate  the  evils  under  which  their  parents 
suffered.  With  the  spirit  of  his  divine  Master,  Pestalozzi 
sought  to  elevate  and  bless  those  around  him. 

Accordingly,  after  the  failure  caused  by  the  withdrawal 
of  the  financial  support  heretofore  mentioned,  he  started 
again  at  Neuhof,  using  his  wife's  money.  He  opened  an 
"industrial  school  for  the  poor,"  which  Kriisi  calls  "the 
first  school  of  its  kind  ever  conceived,  and  the  mother  of 
hundreds  now  existing  on  both  sides  of  the  Atlantic." 
This  was  in  1775.  He  gathered  fifty  children  together, 


MODERN  EDUCATORS  —  PESTALOZZI  267 

and  fed,  clothed,  housed,  and  taught  them  without  com- 
pensation ;  in  return  for  this  they  were  to  work  in  the 
fields  in  summer  and  at  spinning  in  the  winter.  But  this 
experiment  also  was  doomed  to  bring  disappointment.  The 
children  were  lazy,  shiftless,  and  dishonest;  their  work 
was  of  little  use  to  Pestalozzi,  because  of  their  lack  of 
skill  and  their  bad  habits.  They  would  often  run  away  as 
soon  as  they  were  well  fed  and  had  a  new  suit  of  clothes. 
Parents  were  un appreciative  and  dissatisfied,  demanding 
pay  for  the  labor  of  their  children.  Was  there  ever  a 
more  discouraging  situation  than  this  which  Pestalozzi  had 
to  confront,  when  people  demanded  pay  for  accepting  the 
philanthropic  and  unselfish  measures  taken  for  the  good 
of  their  children  and  for  their  own  elevation  ? 

This  could  not  continue  long,  and  in  1780  Pestalozzi  was 
obliged  to  close  his  school.  He  found  himself  badly  in 
debt,  with  his  wife's  property  gone.  But  even  under  these 
overwhelming  misfortunes  he  says,  "  My  failure  showed 
me  the  truth  of  my  plans,"  and  this  has  long  since  been 
verified,  both  in  his  ideas  of  farming  and  in  the  industrial 
school. 

Authorship.  —  The  next  eighteen  years,  though  passed 
by  Pestalozzi  in  extreme  poverty,  were  not  unfruitful.  He 
began  to  write  pamphlets  and  books,  the  first  book  being, 
"The  Evening  Hours  of  a  Hermit,"  which  appeared  in 
1780.  His  second  book,  "Leonard  and  Gertrude,"1  was 
published  the  year  following.  It  created  great  interest 
and  brought  Pestalozzi  immediate  fame.  The  government 
of  Berne  presented  him  a  gold  medal,  which,  however,  he 
was  obliged  to  sell  to  procure  the  necessities  of  life  for  his 
family.  In  "  Leonard  and  Gertrude "  Pestalozzi  gives  a 
homely  and  touching  picture  of  life  among  the  lowly,  and 

1  "Schoolmaster  in  Literature,"  pp.  83-110. 


268  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

shows  how  a  good  woman  uses  her  opportunities  for  up- 
lifting and  educating,  first  her  own  family,  and  then  her 
neighbors.  In  this  work  she  is  aided  by  the  village  school- 
master and  the  magistrate,  who  are  inspired  by  her  example 
and  leadership.  Pestalozzi  wrote  several  other  books  dur- 
ing this  period,  but  none  to  equal  "  Leonard  and  Gertrude." 

Stanz.  —  In  the  meantime,  the  French  Revolution  broke 
out,  and  Pestalozzi,  influenced  by  the  writings  of  Rousseau, 
became  an  ardent  champion  of  the  new  order  of  things. 
He  seems  to  have  acquired  considerable  political  influence, 
as  the  Directors  of  the  Government  of  Switzerland  thought 
it  necessary  to  win  him  to  their  cause  by  giving  him  a 
political  office.  They  therefore  asked  him  what  office  he 
wanted,  and  he  replied,  "  I  want  to  be  a  schoolmaster." 
Accordingly,  when  the  French  had  pillaged  the  inhabitants 
and  burned  their  homes,  Pestalozzi  was  sent  to  Stanz,  — 
the  only  village  left  in  the  canton  of  Nidwalden,  —  to  estab- 
lish a  school.1  Now  for  the  first  time  he  found  himself  in 
the  calling  for  which  his  whole  nature  had  yearned,  for 
which  he  was  peculiarly  suited,  and  in  which  he  was 
destined  to  become  famous. 

At  the  age  of  fifty-three  Pestalozzi  began  his  work  at 
Stanz.  The  government  gave  him  an  empty  convent  in 
which  to  hold  his  school,  and,  before  it  was  ready  for 
occupancy,  children  flocked  to  it  for  admission.  The 
devastation  of  the  land  by  the  French  and  the  consequent 
lack  of  the  necessities  of  life  among  the  people  increased 
the  difficulties  of  Pestalozzi's  task.  His  own  description 
of  the  beginning  of  his  work  is  full  of  eloquence.  Speak- 
ing of  the  school,  he  says,  "  I  was  among  them  from  morn- 
ing till  evening.  Everything  tending  to  benefit  body  and 
soul  I  administered  with  my  own  hand.  Every  assistance, 

1  See  Kriisi,  p.  28,  for  an  account  of  his  appointment. 


MODERN  EDUCATORS  —  PESTALOZZr  269 

every  lesson  they  received,  came  from  me.  My  hand  was 
joined  to  theirs,  and  my  smile  accompanied  theirs.  They 
seemed  out  of  the  world  and  away  from  Stanz ;  they  were 
with  me  and  I  with  them.  We  shared  food  and  drink.  I 
had  no  household,  no  friends,  no  servants  around  me ;  I 
had  only  them.  Was  their  health  good,  I  enjoyed  it  with 
them  ;  were  they  sick,  I  stood  at  their  side.  I  slept  in 
their  midst.  I  was  the  last  to  go  to  bed  and  the  first  to 
rise.  I  prayed  with  them,  and  taught  them  in  bed  till  they 
fell  asleep."  How  true  is  the  saying  that,  "  He  lived  with 
beggars  in  order  that  beggars  might  learn  to  live  like 
men." 

Thus  living  with  them,  teaching  them,  inspiring  them  to 
be  good,  devoting  his  whole  thought  to  their  welfare,  Pes- 
talozzi,  who  was  described  as  "  either  a  good-natured  fool, 
or  a  poor  devil,  who  was  compelled,  by  indigence,  to  per- 
form the  menial  office  of  schoolmaster,"  began  a  work 
that  has  revolutionized  educational  method. 

But  the  same  discouragements  that  had  met  him  at 
Neuhof  attended  him  at  Stanz.  Parents  brought  their 
children  to  the  asylum  only  to  be  clothed,  and  then  re- 
moved them  upon  the  slightest  pretexts.  Nevertheless, 
the  work  of  Pestalozzi  at  Stanz  was  not  a  failure,  though 
the  school  was  rendered  houseless  by  the  French  soldiers 
in  1799,  and  had  to  be  abandoned  after  less  than  five 
months'  existence.  Kriisi  comments  upon  this  period  of 
Pestalozzi's  life  as  follows :  "  Let  those  who  now  witness 
the  mighty  changes  that  have  taken  place  in  education  pay 
grateful  tribute  to  the  man  who  first  took  up  arms  against 
the  hollow  systems  of  the  old  school  routine,  and  who 
showed  the  path  to  those  delightful  regions  of  thought, 
in  whose  well-tilled  soil  rich  harvests  will  ever  be  reaped 
by  the  patient  laborer. 


270  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

"To  the  philanthropist  and  friend  of  education,  Stanz 
will  always  be  a  hallowed  spot,  exhibiting,  as  it  does,  the 
picture  of  this  venerable  teacher  sitting  among  the  out- 
cast children,  animated  by  the  very  spirit  of  Christ,  and 
by  a  great  idea  which  not  only  filled  his  own  soul,  but  also 
inspired  those  who  witnessed  his  labors.  " : 

Burgdorf .  —  But  Stanz  proved  the  turning  point  in  Pes- 
talozzi's  career.  He  was  soon  chosen  assistant  teacher 
at  Burgdorf.  His  experience  at  Stanz,  without  books  and 
without  appliances,  had  compelled  him  to  invent  methods 
of  interesting  the  children.  He  was  thus  brought  to  the 
use  of  objects,  and  here  we  have  the  beginning  of  practi- 
cal object  teaching.  It  was  not  long,  however,  before  the 
head  master  of  the  school  became  jealous  of  him  because 
he  secured  the  attention  and  affection  of  the  pupils,  and 
Pestalozzi's  dismissal  was  obtained  on  the  ground  that  he 
did  not  know  how  to  read  and  spell  correctly,  a  charge 
which,  as  we  have  seen,  was  without  doubt  true.  As  to 
his  method  of  teaching,  Ramsauer,  one  of  his  pupils,  tells 
us  that  "there  was  no  regular  plan,  not  any  time-table. 
.  .  .  As  Pestalozzi,  in  his  zeal,  did  not  tie  himself  to  any 
particular  time,  we  generally  went  on  until  eleven  o'clock 
with  whatever  we  commenced  at  eight,  and  by  ten  o'clock 
he  was  always  tired  and  hoarse.  We  knew  when  it  was 
eleven  by  the  noise  of  the  other  school  children  in  the 
street,  and  then  we  usually  all  ran  out  without  bidding 
good-by."  Certainly  no  one  will  commend  such  school- 
room practice,  and  at  first  glance  Pestalozzi  would  seem 
to  merit  only  censure ;  but  his  enthusiasm,  his  zeal  for  the 
good  of  his  fellow-beings,  and  his  consciousness  of  possess- 
ing the  truth  triumphed  over  his  lack  of  system  as  well 
as  over  other  obstacles.  The  school  committee  of  Burg- 

1 "  Pestalozzi,"  p.  36. 


MODERN  EDUCATORS— PESTALOZZI  271 

dorf  appreciated  this,  as  is  shown  by  their  report.  "  He 
(Pestalozzi)  has  shown  what  powers  are  hidden  in  the 
feeble  child,  and  in  what  manner  they  can  be  developed. 
The  pupils  have  made  astonishing  progress  in  some 
branches,  thereby  proving  that  every  child  is  capable  of 
doing  something  if  the  teacher  is  able  to  draw  out  his 
talent,  and  awaken  the  powers  of  his  mind  in  the  order 
of  their  natural  development." 

Upon  his  dismissal  from  this  position  he  united  with 
Hermann  Kriisi  in  founding  a  private  school.  Pupils 
increased  in  numbers,  and  at  last  Pestalozzi  was  on  the 
road  to  success  as  well  as  fame.  He  gathered  a  strong 
corps  of  teachers  about  him,  who  not  only  contributed  to 
the  success  of  the  institution,  but  sat  at  the  feet  of  their 
recognized  master,  and  loyally  supported  his  measures. 
During  his  life  at  Burgdorf,  he  issued  his  work  entitled 
"  How  Gertrude  teaches  her  Children  "  (1801),  in  which  he 
attempts  to  give  his  system  of  education.  "  A  work,"  says 
Professor  Hunziker,1  "  whose  contents  in  no  way  meet  the 
demands  of  the  subtitle."  (The  full  title  is,  "  How  Gertrude 
teaches  her  Children ;  an  Attempt  to  direct  Mothers  how 
to  teach  their  own  Children.") 

Yverdon.  —  In  1804  Pestalozzi  was  obliged  to  vacate  his 
quarters  at  Burgdorf,  and  after  some  hesitation  he  moved 
his  school  to  Yverdon,  into  an  old  fortress,  "  which,"  says 
Kriisi,  "  having  stood  many  a  siege  of  invading  armies, 
was  now  captured  by  a  schoolmaster ;  and  it  was  hence- 
forth to  become  more  formidable  in  its  attack  upon  igno- 
rance, than  it  had  before  been  in  its  defense  of  liberty." 
At  Yverdon  Pestalozzi  was  enabled  to  carry  out  the  prin- 
ciples of  education  which  he  had  so  long  held,  and  this 
place  must  be  recognized  as  the  Mecca  of  Pestalozzianism. 

1 "  Encyklopadisches  Handbuch  der  Padagogik,"  Vol.  V,  p.  315. 


2/2  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

His  success  at  Burgdorf  had  drawn  to  him  the  attention 
of  the  world,  and  now  educators,  philosophers,  and 
princes  began  to  study  his  theories,  while  many  visited  the 
institution  to  witness  its  peculiar  workings.  Without 
doubt  the  many  visitors  seriously  disturbed  the  work,  as 
Pestalozzi  took  great  pains  to  show  what  his  pupils  could 
do,  especially  when  men  of  influence  came.  During  the 
first  five  years  there  was  great  prosperity,  the  number 
of  students  reaching  one  hundred  and  fifty.  Pestalozzi 
usually  arose  at  two  in  the  morning,  and  commenced  liter- 
ary work ;  and  his  example  was  followed  by  his  teachers, 
one  of  whom  testifies,-  "  There  were  years  in  which  not 
one  of  us  was  found  in  bed  after  three  o'clock,  and  sum- 
mer and  winter  we  worked  from  three  to  six  in  the 
morning."  1 

At  first  the  teachers  were  thoroughly  united,  cordially 
carrying  out  the  teachings  of  "  Father  Pestalozzi."  But 
after  a  time  private  ambitions  and  personal  jealousies  crept 
in  and  destroyed  harmony.  Many  of  the  best  teachers 
left  and  the  school  was  closed.2  In  1825,  after  an  exist- 
ence of  twenty  years,  the  institute  at  Yverdon  was  aban- 
doned, and  once  more  Pestalozzi  saw  the  apparent  failure 
of  his  hopes.  He  died  two  years  later,  at  the  age  of 
eighty-one. 

Mr.  Quick  comments  upon  this  event  as  follows :  "  Thus 
the  sun  went  down  in  clouds,  and  the  old  man,  when  he 
died  at  the  age  of  eighty,3  in  1829,*  had  seen  the  apparent 
failure  of  all  his  toils.  He  had  not,  however,  failed  in 

1  "  Encyklopadisches  Hanclhuch,"  Vol.  V,  p.  319. 

2  Kriisi,  whose  father  was  associated  with  Pestalozzi,  gives  a  full  account  of 
these  dissensions.     He  also  tells  many  interesting  incidents  connected  with 
Pestalozzi  and  his  school  at  Yverdon,  p.  45. 

8  Should  be  eighty-one.  4  1827. 


MODERN  EDUCATORS— PESTALOZZI  273 

reality.  It  has  been  said  of  him  that  his  true  function  was 
to  educate  ideas,  not  children,  and  when  twenty  years 
later  the  centenary  of  his  birth  was  celebrated  by  school- 
masters, not  only  in  his  native  country,  but  throughout 
Germany,  it  was  found  that  Pestalozzian  ideas  had  been 
sown,  and  were  bearing  fruit,  over  the  greater  part  of 
central  Europe."1 

Professor  Hunziker  says  of  Pestalozzi's  influence, 
"  Eighty  years  have  passed  since  Pestalozzi  was  laid  in 
the  grave.  The  social  thinker,  who  pointed  out  the  way  of 
reform  for  humanity  in  his  '  Leonard  and  Gertrude,'  who 
attempted  to  solve  the  enigmas  and  inequalities  of  social 
life  in  his  '  Inquiries  concerning  the  Course  of  Nature  in 
the  Development  of  Mankind,'  is  almost  forgotten.  But 
the  name  of  Pestalozzi  shines  brighter  than  ever  in  the 
field  of  pedagogics.  In  every  branch  of  education  we  hear 
the  warning  cry,  return  to  Pestalozzi !  Let  the  watchword 
for  the  future  be  :  Pestaloszi forever !  "  2 

Summary  of  Pestalozzi's  Work.  —  No  one  can  study  the 
history  of  Pestalozzi  without  discovering  the  secret  of  his 
educational  purpose.  It  is  revealed  in  every  enterprise  he 
undertook,  in  every  book  he  wrote,  in  his  whole  lifework.3 
Let  us  briefly  sum  up  the  work  he  accomplished :  - 

1.  He  showed  how  the  theories  of  Comenius  and  Rous- 
seau  could  be  applied.     By  this  a  decided   impulse  was 
given  to  educational  reform,  and  the  way  was  prepared  for 
the  wonderful  educational  revival  of  the  present  century. 

2.  His  greatest  pedagogical  principle  is  that  education 
consists  in  the  harmonious  development  of  all  the  human 
powers. 

1  "Educational  Reformers,"  p.  183. 

2  "  Encyklopadisches  Handbuch,"  Vol.  V,  p.  320. 

8  "  In  him  the  most  interesting  thing  is  his  life."  —  QUICK. 
HIST.   OF   ED.  —  1 8 


274  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

3.  Development   should    follow   the   order   of    nature. 
While  he  doubtless  borrowed  this  thought  from  Rousseau, 
unlike  Rousseau  he  held  that  the  order  of  nature  requires 
the  child  to  be  taught  with  other  children. 

4.  All  knowledge  is  obtained  through  the  senses  by  the 
self-activity  of  the  child. 

5.  Instruction   should   be   based  on  observation,  espe- 
cially with  young  children.     Hence  objects  must  be  freely 
used.     There  are  three  classes  of  object  lessons, — those 
applying  to  form,  to  number,  and  to  speech.     Mr.  Quick 
says,  "By   his   object  lessons  Pestalozzi  aimed   at, — (i) 
enlarging  gradually  the  sphere  of  the  child's  intuition,  that 
is,  increasing  the  number  of  objects  falling  under  his  imme- 
diate perception ;  (2)  impressing  upon  him  those  percep- 
tions of  which  he  had  become  conscious,  with  certainty, 
clearness,  and  precision  ;  (3)  imparting  to  him  a  compre- 
hensive  knowledge   of    language    for   the   expression   of 
whatever  had  become  or  was  becoming  an  object  of  his 
consciousness,  in  consequence  either  of  the  spontaneous 
impulse  of  his  own  nature,  or  of  the  assistance  of  tuition." 

6.  The  mother  is  the  natural  educator  of  the  child  in  its 
early  years.     "  Maternal  love  is  the  first  agent  in  educa- 
tion ;  .  .  .  through  it  the  child  is  led  to  love  and  trust  his 
Creator  and  his  Redeemer."     It  follows,  therefore,  that 
mothers  should  be  educated. 

7.  He  illustrated  his  principles  in  his  methods  of  in- 
struction.    He  employed  the  phonic  method  in  spelling ; l 
made  use  of  objects  in  teaching  number ;  graded  the  work 
according  to  the  capacity  of  the  children  ;  taught  drawing, 
language,  composition,  etc.,  by  use,  thus  illustrating  one 
of   the   aphorisms  of   Comenius,  — "  We   learn   to  do  by 
doing." 

1  Not  original  with  Pestalozzi,  —  see  Port  Royalists. 


MODERN  EDUCATORS— PESTALOZZI  2/5 

8.  But  the  greatest  lesson  that  Pestalozzi  taught  is 
embodied  in  the  word  love.  He  loved  little  children,  he 
loved  the  distressed  and  lowly,  he  loved  all  his  fellow-men. 
By  the  spirit  which  actuated  him,  by  the  methods  of 
instruction  employed,  by  a  life  of  disappointment  and 
apparent  failure,  by  the  appreciation  of  his  service  after 
he  had  gone  to  his  rest,  by  the  accelerated  growth  of  his 
teachings  throughout  the  world,  he  more  closely  resem- 
bles the  Great  Teacher  than  any  other  man  that  has  ever 
lived.  Dr.  Harris  says,  "  He  is  the  first  teacher  to  an- 
nounce convincingly  the  doctrine  that  all  people  should 
be  educated,  —  that,  in  fact,  education  is  the  one  good  gift 
to  give  to  all,  whether  rich  or  poor."  1  Hence  there  is  no 
character  in  educational  history  more  worthy  of  study  and 
more  inspiring  to  the  teacher  than  Johann  Heinrich 
Pestalozzi. 

1  For  statement  of  his  principles,  see  Compayre,  p.  438  ;  Williams,  p.  312  ; 
Kriisi,  p.  169. 


CHAPTER   XXXIX 

MODERN  EDUCATORS   (Continued) 
FROEBEL   (1782-1852) 

Literature.  —  Lange,  Collected  Writings  of  F.  Froebel;  Kriege, 
Friedrich  Froebel ;  Bcrwen,  Froebel  and  Education  by  Self-activity ; 
Herford,  The  Student's  Froebel ;  Froebel,  Education  of  Man ;  Quick, 
Educational  Reformers  ;  Munroe,  Educational  Ideal;  Williams,  History 
of  Modern  Education;  Marenholtz-Bulow,  Reminiscences  of  F.  Froebel; 
Rein,  Encyklopadisches  Handbuch  der  Padagogik. 


FRIEDRICH  WILHELM  AUGUST  FROEBEL  was  born  at 
Oberweisbach,  a  village  in  the  beautiful  Thiiringian  Forest 
of  Germany.  The  first  ten  years  of  his  life  were  spent 
at  home  under  the  instruction  of  his  father,  who  was  a 
Lutheran  clergyman  and  had  six  villages  under  his  pas- 
torate. The  many  cares  of  his  office  prevented  the  pastor 
from  giving  his  son  much  attention,  and  as  the  stepmother 
neither  understood  the  boy,  nor  took  much  interest  in  him, 
he  spent  most  of  his  time  in  the  woods,  with  birds  and 
flowers  as  his  companions,  and  received  far  less  rudimen- 
tary training  than  most  boys  of  his  age.  But  at  the  age  of 
ten  an  important  change  took  place  in  his  life.  He  went 
to  live  with  his  mother's  brother,  who  sent  him  to  school 
for  four  years.  Here  he  was  taught  the  elementary 
branches  and  a  little  Latin.  He  tells  us  of  the  pro- 
found impression  made  upon  him  the  first  day  of,  school 
by  the  text  of  Scripture  that  the  children  repeated.  It 
was,  "  Seek  ye  first  the  kingdom  of  God."  He  says, 

276 


MODERN  ED  L/C  A  TORS  —  FROEBEL  2/7 

"The  verse  made  an  impression  on  me  like  nothing 
before  or  since.  Indeed,  this  impression  was  so  lively 
and  deep,  that  to-day  every  word  lives  fresh  in  my  mem- 
ory with  the  peculiar  accent  with  which  it  was  spoken ; 
and  yet  since  that  time  nearly  forty  years  have  elapsed." 
His  progress  in  the  school  does  not  seem  to  have  been 
very  great. 

At  fourteen  he  returned  to  his  father's  home,  and  soon 
thereafter  was  apprenticed  to  a  forester.  Here  he  was 
entirely  in  his  element,  and  he  tells  of  four  aspects  of  this 
life  :  "  The  homelier  and  more  practical  life  ;  the  life  spent 
with  nature,  especially  forest  nature ;  the  life  of  study, 
devoted  to  mathematics  and  languages,  for  which  he  found 
a  good  supply  of  books  ready  to  hand  ;  and  the  time  spent 
in  gaining  a  knowledge  of  plants,  in  which  he  was  much 
helped  by  books  on  botany  lent  him  by  a  neighboring  doc- 
tor." J  But  he  obtained  little  help  from  the  forester,  so  at 
the  end  of  three  years  Froebel  withdrew,  and  soon  there- 
after entered  the  university  of  Jena.  He  seems  to  have 
studied  hard  during  the  year  and  a  half  he  spent  at  Jena, 
but  to  have  accomplished  little.  He  became  involved  in 
debt,  and  was  imprisoned  for  nine  weeks  in  the  university 
"  Career."  2  After  his  liberation,  he  left  the  university. 

As  Teacher.  —  Meeting  with  little  success  in  various 
enterprises  in  which  he  engaged,  he  at  last  drifted  to 
Frankfurt-am-Main,  where  he  made  the  acquaintance  of 
Dr.  Gruner,  head  master  of  the  Model  School.  Dr.  Gruner 
quickly  discovered  Froebel's  talent,  and  urged  him  to 
accept  a  position  under  him  as  teacher.  Froebel  reluc- 
tantly consented,  but  in  speaking  later  of  his  first  experi- 

1  Bowen,  "Froebel,"  p.  n. 

2  For  a  part  of  this  debt  Froebel's  brother,  also  a  student,  was  responsible. 
The  amount  of  the  debt  was  less  than  twenty-five  dollars. 


278  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

ence  in  the  schoolroom,  he  says,  "  It  seemed  as  if  I  had 
found  something  I  had  never  known,  but  always  longed 
for,  always  missed ;  as  if  my  life  had  at  last  discovered  its 
native  element.  I  felt  as  happy  as  the  fish  in  the  water, 
the  bird  in  the  air." 

Although  Froebel  succeeded  at  once  in  his  new  profes- 
sion, thereby  justifying  Dr.  Gruner's  opinion  of  him,  he 
felt  that  he  needed  special  preparation  for  the  work  of 
teaching.  Accordingly,  in  1808,  after  two  years'  experi- 
ence in  teaching,  having  in  the  meantime  visited  Pestalozzi 
at  Yverdon,  and  having  read  his  works,  he  gave  up  his 
position  and  joined  the  institute  at  Yverdon. 

He  took  with  him  three  of  his  pupils  to  tutor,  and  "it 
thus  happened,"  he  tells  us,  "that  I  was  there  both  as 
teacher  and  scholar,  educator  and  pupil."  Froebel  spent 
two  years  at  Yverdon,  and  his  testimony  concerning  Pesta- 
lozzi is  interesting.  He  says,  "  He  set  one's  soul  on  fire 
for  a  higher  and  nobler  life,  though  he  had  not  made  clear 
or  sure  the  exact  road  toward  it,  nor  indicated  the  means 
whereby  to  attain  it."  This  sums  up  in  a  word  the  secret 
and  extent  of  Pestalozzi's  power.  Dittes  thinks  that  "  the 
origin  of  the  kindergarten  is  due  to  the  pedagogical  revival 
of  Pestalozzi."  Froebel  himself,  speaking  of  his  experi- 
ence at  Yverdon,  says,  "  I  studied  the  boys'  play,  the 
whole  series  of  games  in  the  open  air,  and  learned  to 
recognize  their  mighty  power  to  awaken  and  to  strengthen 
the  intelligence  and  the  soul  as  well  as  the  body."  fcLere 
we  find  the  first  suggestion  of  the  kindergarten,  which  has 
made  Froebel  famous. 

After  leaving  Yverdon,  Froebel  spent  about  two  years 
at  the  universities  of  Gottingen  and  Berlin  in  furthering 
his  preparation  for  educational  reform,  to  which  he  had 
devoted  himself.  In  1813  war  for  German  liberty  broke 


MODERN  EDUCATORS  — FROEBEL  279 

out,  and  Froebel,  with  many  other  students,  enlisted.  It 
is  not  the  purpose  here  to  follow  his  fortunes  as  a  soldier, 
but  while  in  the  army  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  two 
young  men  who  afterward  became  associated  with  him  in 
educational  enterprise,  —  Wilhelm  Middendorff  and  Hein- 
rich  Langethal. 

His  First  School.  —  In  1816  Froebel  opened  his  first 
school  at  Griesheim,  under  the  high-sounding  title  of  "  Uni- 
versal German  Educational  Institute."  At  first  he  had  his 
five  nephews  as  his  only  pupils.  Soon  after,  the  school 
was  removed  to  Keilhau,  near  Rudolstadt,  in  the  Thiirin- 
gian  Forest.  Here  he  was  joined  by  his  old  friends  Mid- 
dendorff and  Langethal.  This  institution  continued  for  a 
number  of  years  with  some  success,  until  1833,  when 
Froebel  removed  to  Burgdorf,  Switzerland.  The  Prussian 
government,  far  from  giving  encouragement  to  the  insti- 
tution at  Keilhau,  had  regarded  it  with  suspicion.  A 
commission  was  sent  by  the  government  to  examine  the 
institution,  and  although  the  report  was  highly  complimen- 
tary to  Froebel's  work,1  the  persecution  did  not  cease.  In 
1851  the  government  prohibited  kindergartens,  as  forming 
"  a  part  of  the  Froebelian  socialistic  system,  the  aim  of 
which  is  to  teach  children  atheism  "  ;  and  this  decree  was 
in  force  till  1 860 ! 

Indeed,  to  this  day,  Prussia  does  not  regard  the  kinder- 
garten as  an  educational  institution,  nor  does  she  give  aid 
to  it  as  such.  The  kindergarten  is  officially  recognized  as  a 
sort  of  day  nursery,  its  teachers  are  not  licensed,  —  hence 
have  no  official  standing,  —  and  "  everything  that  pertains  to 
the  work  of  the  elementary  schools,  every  specific  prepara- 

1  The  sole  recommendation  of  the  commission  that  might  be  interpreted  as 
a  criticism  was  that  the  boys  should  have  their  hair  cut  !  See  Bowen's"  Froe- 
bel," p.  26,  for  the  full  report  of  the  visiting  commission. 


280  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

tion  for  the  work  of  the  latter,  must  be  strictly  excluded, 
and  these  schools  can  in  no  way  be  allowed  to  take  the 
character  of  institutions  of  learning.  Especially  can  nei- 
ther reading  nor  arithmetic  be  allowed  a  place  in  them."  1 

But  Froebel  received  more  encouragement  in  Switzer- 
land. He  admitted  children  from  four  to  six  years  of  age, 
and  organized  a  teachers'  class  to  study  his  theories.  Al- 
though Froebel  did  not  remain  long  in  Switzerland,  that 
land  proved  congenial  to  his  ideas,  and  the  kindergarten  has 
flourished  there  from  his  time  to  the  present.  Great  credit  is 
due  to  this  country,  which  extended  its  hospitality  to  the 
two  great  educational  modern  reformers,  Pestalozzi  and 
Froebel ! 

The  Kindergarten.  —  Mr.  Herford  says  of  Froebel's  insti- 
tution at  Burgdorf,  that,  "  Here  we  recognize  the  rise  of  the 
kindergarten,  not  yet  so  named."2  The  name  came  to 
Froebel  a  few  years  later  as  an  inspiration.  He  had  re- 
turned to  Keilhau  and  opened  a  school  in  the  neighboring 
town  of  Blankenburg.  For  a  long  time  he  had  been  pon- 
dering over  a  suitable  name  for  the  new  institution. 
"  While  taking  a  walk  one  day  with  Middendorff  and  Barof 
to  Blankenburg  over  the  Steiger  Pass,  Froebel  kept  re- 
peating, '  Oh,  if  I  could  only  think  of  a  good  name  for  my 
youngest  born ! '  Blankenburg  lay  at  our  feet,  and  he 
walked  moodily  toward  it.  Suddenly  he  stood  still  as  if 
riveted  to  the  spot,  and  his  eyes  grew  wonderfully  bright. 
Then  he  shouted  to  the  mountain  so  that  it  echoed  to  the 
four  winds,  '  Eureka !  Kindergarten  shall  the  institute  be 
called  ! ' " 

But,  like  Pestalozzi,  Froebel  was  wholly  incapable  of 
financial  management,  and  the  institution  at  Blankendorf 

1  Rescript  from  the  Prussian  Minister  of  Education,  April  7,  1884. 

2  "  The  Student's  Froebel,"  XV. 


MODERN  EDUCATORS— FROEBEL  281 

had  to  be  closed.  He  devoted  the  remainder  of  his  life  to 
lecturing  upon  his  theories  in  different  parts  of  Germany. 
He  appealed  to  mothers,  and  endeavored  to  instruct  them 
in  the  duty  of  training  young  children.  He  taught  that 
the  mother  is  the  natural  teacher  of  the  child,  and  that  it 
is  her  duty  to  fit  herself  for  the  sacred  responsibility  that 
God  has  placed  upon  her.  Froebel's  greatest  discovery 
was  that  education  comes  only  through  self-activity,  though 
he  never  clearly  formulated  his  discovery.  The  Baroness 
Bertha  von  Marenholtz-Biilow  has  published  one  of  the 
best  accounts  of  his  life  and  work.1 

The  "Education  of  Man."  —  Froebel  gives  his  philosophy 
of  education  in  his  "  Education  of  Man,"  but  his  most  popu- 
lar work  is  "  Songs  for  Mother  and  Nursery."  His  chief 
contribution  to  the  work  of  educational  reform  is  the  kin- 
dergarten, an  institution  that  has  been  ingrafted  upon  the 
school  systems  of  many  lands,  and  that  is  destined  to  be- 
come ever  increasingly  potent  for  good.  In  no  country 
in  the  world  has  the  kindergarten  taken  so  strong  a 
hold  and  made  so  great  progress  as  in  America.  The 
purpose  of  the  kindergarten,  according  to  Froebel  him- 
self, is,  "  to  take  the  oversight  of  children  before  they  are 
ready  for  school  life ;  to  exert  an  influence  over  their  whole 
being  in  correspondence  with  its  nature ;  to  strengthen 
their  bodily  powers  ;  to  exercise  their  senses ;  to  employ 
the  awakening  mind ;  to  make  them  thoughtfully  ac- 
quainted with  the  world  of  nature  and  of  man ;  to  guide 
their  heart  and  soul  in  the  right  direction,  and  to  lead 
them  to  the  Origin  of  all  life,  and  to  unison  with  Him." 

1  "  Handbuch  der  Froebelischen  Erziehungslehre,"  "  Reminiscences  of 
Friedrich  Froebel,  Child  and  Child-nature." 


CHAPTER   XL 

MODERN   EDUCATORS  (Continued) 
HERBART    (1776-1841) 

Literature.  —  De  Garmo,  Herbart  and  the  Herbartians  ;  Felktn,  Intro- 
duction to  Herbart ;  Van  Liew,  Life  of  Herbart  and  Development  of 
his  Pedagogical  Doctrines  ;  Yearbooks  of  the  Herbart  Society  ;  Lange, 
Apperception ;  Rein,  Outlines  of  Pedagogics ;  also,  Encyklopadisches 
Handbuch  der  Padagogik;  Willmann,  Herbart 'spadagogische  Schriften. 


IT  is  probable  that  no  system  of  pedagogy  is  attract- 
ing so  much  attention  and  awakening  so  much  interest 
at  the  present  time  as  that  of  Herbart.  Professor  Rein 
says,  "  He  who  nowadays  will  aspire  to  the  highest  ped- 
agogical knowledge,  cannot  neglect  to  make  a  thorough 
study  of  Herbart's  pedagogy."  Johann  Friedrich  Herbart 
was  born  at  Oldenburg,  May  4,  1776.  His  grandfather 
was  rector  of  the  Gymnasium  at  Oldenburg  for  thirty- 
four  years ;  his  father  was  a  high  official  under  the  govern- 
ment;  but  his  mother  seems  to  have  wielded  the  most 
influence  over  him.  She  watched  over  his  studies  with 
greatest  care,  and,  indeed,  studied  Greek  herself  to  spur 
him  on.  Though  gentle  and  mild,  she  was  firm  in  disci- 
pline. The  father  was  satisfied  to  leave  the  direction  of  the 
education  of  his  son  to  her.  There  was,  however,  little 
sympathy  between  the  father  and  mother,  and  there  were 
frequent  family  dissensions,  that  must  have  had  a  bad  in- 
fluence on  the  lad.  These  disagreements  finally  led  to  a 
separation.  A  tutor  employed  for  Herbart  at  this  period 

282 


MODERN  EDUCATORS— HERB  ART  283 

developed  in  him  a  speculative  tendency  and  taught  him 
the  power  of  forcible  expression.  Herbart  learned  to 
play  on  several  musical  instruments,  and  at  the  age  of 
eleven  displayed  considerable  talent  as  a  pianist. 

When  twelve  years  of  age  he  entered  the  Gymna- 
sium at  Oldenburg,  and  six  years  later  completed  the 
course.  He  entered  the  university  of  Jena  in  1794  and 
became  a  student  of  Fichte,  who  was  sure  to  inspire  a  young 
man  of  Herbart's  philosophical  bent.  His  attention  seems 
to  have  been  directed  to  educational  questions,  though  he 
had  not  yet  decided  to  be  a  teacher.1 

As  Teacher.  —  After  three  years  at  Jena,  Herbart  be- 
came tutor  (Hauslehrer)  in  the  family  of  Herr  von  Steiger, 
governor  of  Interlaken.  This  was  his  only  experience  in 
teaching  children.  "  Herbart's  experience  as  a  teacher," 
says  De  Garmo,  "  would  seem  too  small  a  thing  to  mention 
—  some  two  or  three  years  in  a  private  family  in  Switzerland 
with  three  children  aged  respectively  eight,  twelve,  and 
fourteen.  Yet  to  a  man  who  can  see  an  oak  tree  in  an 
acorn,  who  can  understand  all  minds  from  the  study  of 
a  few,  such  an  experience  may  be  most  fruitful."  It  is 
certain  that  Herbart  often  drew  upon  this  experience  in 
his  later  writings.  While  in  Switzerland  he  visited  Pesta- 
lozzi,  with  whom  he  was  deeply  impressed.  Opinions 
differ  as  to  the  harmony  of  theory  between  Pestalozzi  and 
Herbart.  Professor  Rein  thinks  that,  "  In  the  ideas  of 
Pestalozzi  are  found  the  outlines  of  Herbart's  pedagogical 
structure." 

Having  decided  to  devote  himself  to  academic  teaching, 
he  gave  up  his  position  in  Switzerland  and  went  to 
Bremen  for  further  study.  During  the  two  years  spent 

1  Professor  Rein  indicates  that  Herbart  discussed  educational  questions  at 
this  period.  See  "  Encyklopadisches  Handbuch,"  Vol.  Ill,  p.  468. 


284  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

there,  he  wrote  several  essays  on  educational  subjects,  but 
gave  his  chief  attention  to  the  study  of  Greek  and  mathe- 
matics. 

As  Professor.  —  In  1802  he  took  the  first  step  in  his 
academic  career  as  Privat  Decent  at  the  university  of 
Gottingen.  This  with  him  was  a  period  of  great  literary 
activity.1  In  1809,  he  was  called  to  the  chair  of  philosophy 
at  Konigsberg  once  occupied  by  Kant.  He  calls  this 
"  the  most  renowned  chair  of  philosophy,  the  place  which 
when  a  boy  I  longed  for  in  reverential  dreams,  as  I 
studied  the  works  of  the  sage  of  Konigsberg."  2 

His  Practice  School.  —  Here  he  established  a  pedagogi- 
cal seminary,  having  a  practice  school  in  which  the 
students  instructed  children  under  the  criticism  of  Herbart 
himself.  Concerning  his  pedagogical  activity  at  Konigs- 
berg, Herbart  says,  "Among  my  many  duties,  the  consider- 
ation of  educational  questions  is  of  especial  interest  to  me. 
But  it  is  not  enough  to  theorize  merely ;  there  must  be 
experiment  and  practice.  Furthermore,  I  desire  to  extend 
the  range  of  my  own  experience  (already  covering  ten 
years)  in  this  field.  Therefore,  I  have  long  had  in  mind 
to  teach  daily  for  one  hour  a  few  selected  boys  in  the 
presence  of  such  of  my  students  as  are  familiar  with  my 
pedagogical  theory.  After  a  little,  these  students  are  to 
take  up  the  work  I  have  begun,  and  give  instruction  under 
my  observation.  In  time,  in  this  way,  teachers  would  be 
trained,  whose  method  by  means  of  reciprocal  observation 
and  discussion  must  be  perfected.  As  a  plan  of  teaching 
is  valueless  without  a  teacher,  and  indeed  a  teacher  that  is 
in  sympathy  with  that  plan,  and  is  master  of  the  method,  — 

1  For  list  of  works  produced,  see  De  Garmo's  "  Herbart  and  the  Herbar- 
tians,"  p.  17. 

8  Felkin's  translation  of  "  Science  of  Education,"  p.  16. 


MODERN  EDUCATORS— HERB  ART  285 

so  perhaps  a  small  experimental  school,  such  as  I  have 
in  mind,  would  prepare  the  way  for  future  greater  under- 
takings. There  is  a  word  from  Kant,  '  first  experimental 
schools  and  then  normal  schools  ! '  "  l 

This  was  the  first  practice  school  in  connection  with  the 
chair  of  pedagogy  in  a  university  ;  the  idea,  however,  does 
not  seem  to  have  taken  very  deep  root,  as,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  celebrated  practice  school  at  Jena,  under  Pro- 
fessor Rein,  there  is  not  one  now  in  Germany.  Most  pro- 
fessors of  pedagogy  conduct  a  Seminar,  in  which  some 
practice  work  with  children  is  done,  but  none  of  them 
maintain  a  practice  school. 

Literary  Activity.  —  Herbart's  literary  activity  at  Konigs- 
berg  was  great.  He  worked  out  his  psychological  system, 
and  wrote  also  on  philosophy,  history,  and  pedagogy. 
But  his  greatest  works  in  the  latter  field  are  his  "ABC 
der  Anschauung," 2  and  his  "Allgemeine  Padagogik,"3 
both  of  which  appeared  while  he  was  still  at  Gottingen.4 
In  1833,  after  twenty-four  years  in  Konigsberg,  he  returned 
to  Gottingen,  where  his  lifework  was  completed  in  1841. 
Upon  his  retirement  from  Konigsberg,  the  practice  school 
was  closed.  Ten  years  later,  a  pupil  of  Herbart,  Karl 
Volkmar  Stoy,  established  the  practice  school  at  Jena,  of 
which  mention  has  already  been  made.  Two  schools  of 
Herbartians  exist  in  Germany,  the  Stoy  school,  which 
attempts  to  follow  Herbart  very  closely,  and  the  Ziller 
school,  which  is  freer  in  its  interpretation  of  him.  The 
chief  exponent  of  the  latter  is  Professor  Wilhelm  Rein  of 

1  Willmann's  "  Herbart,"  Vol.  II,  p.  3. 

2  "  The  A  B  C  of  Observation." 

3  "  General  Pedagogy." 

4  The  best  collection  of  his  works  is  that  by  Willmann,  "  Herbart's  Pa'da- 
gogische  Schriften,"  which  has  not  been  translated  into  English. 


286  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

Jena,  the  place  which  is  at  present  the  center  of  Herbartian 
activity.  In  America  this  movement  is  under  the  direction 
of  the  National  Herbart  Society. 

His  Pedagogical  Work.  —  Aside  from  the  educational 
movements  organized  by  Herbart  and  his  followers,  the 
credit  is  due  to  him  of  being  the  first  to  elevate  pedagogy 
to  the  dignity  of  a  science.  Professor  Rein  says,  "  Her- 
bart has  rendered  an  undisputed  service  in  that  he  has 
elevated  pedagogics  to  the  rank  of  a  science.  No  one  has 
ever  repented  of  having  become  familiar  with  Herbart's 
teachings,  for,  in  any  case,  he  has  thereby  added  richly  to 
his  own  attainments.  The  development  of  our  people  will 
be  fortunate  if  the  education  of  the  youth  shall  be  intrusted 
more  and  more  to  those  who  stand  and  work  upon  the  lines 
laid  down  by  Comenius,  Pestalozzi,  Herbart. 

"  The  pedagogic  thinking  of  Herbart  has  indeed  borne 
rich  fruit  in  Germany.  Other  peoples,  also,  have  been 
blessed  by  his  teachings.  Thus  Herbart,  whose  span  of 
life  did  not  reach  to  the  middle  of  this  century,  lives  in  the 
present.  He  created  the  basis  of  a  science  of  education, 
which  furnishes  a  safe  starting  point  for  all  pedagogical 
theories,  and  which  bears  in  itself  the  most  fruitful  germs 
for  future  development."  : 

There  are  two  schools  of  interpretation  of  Herbart's 
pedagogy  in  Germany,  the  one  led  by  Stoy,  who  gave  a 
close  interpretation,  and  the  other  by  Ziller,  whose  inter- 
pretation is  more  liberal  and  whose  leading  disciple  is  Pro- 
fessor Rein  of  Jena. 

Modern  Herbartians  have  carried  forward  the  devel- 
opment far  beyond  its  original  outline.  The  terms 
"many-sided  interest,"  "apperception,"  "concentration," 
"  culture-epochs,"  "  the  formal  steps  of  instruction,"  "  corre- 

1 "  Encyklopadisches  Handbuch  der  Padagogik,"  Vol.  Ill,  p.  485. 


MODERN  EDUCATORS  — HERB  ART  28? 

lation,"  and  "  harmonious  development,"  are  phrases  that 
have  become  common  in  educational  literature.  The  limits 
of  this  volume  do  not  permit  a  discussion  of  these  subjects. 
Indeed,  many  of  them  belong  more  properly  to  the  dis- 
ciples of  Herbart,  rather  than  to  Herbart  himself.1  Mier- 
bart's  ideal  was  that  education  should  aim  to  produce  well- 
rounded  men,  fit  for  all  the  duties  of  life ;  men  well  devel- 
oped physically,  intellectually,  morally,  and  spiritually./  He 
himself  was  not  one-sided,  being  an  enthusiastic  teacher 
as  well  as  psychologist  and  philosopher. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  the  discussions  of  the  Herbartian 
school  have  clarified  the  meaning  of  apperception,  have 
led  to  a  better  correlation  of  the  subjects  of  the  school 
curriculum,  have  emphasized  the  necessity  of  a  harmonious 
development  of  all  the  human  powers,  and  have  called 
attention  to  moral  character  as  the  chief  end  of  education 
as  it  had  never  been  called  before.  Such  being  the  case, 
the  Herbartians  have  exerted  a  mighty  influence  upon 
American  education. 

1  For  discussion  of  these  subjects,  see  the  Yearbooks  of  the  Herbartian 
Society,  and  other  works  referred  to  on  page  282.  For  the  completes!  list 
of  references  to  Herbartian  literature,  see  "  Encyklopadisches  Handbuch," 
Vol.  Ill,  p.  485. 


CHAPTER   XLI 

MODERN  EDUCATORS    (Continued) 
HORACE   MANN   (1796-1859) 

Literature.  — Mrs.  Mary  T.  Mann,  Life  of  Horace  Mann ;  Hinsdale, 
Horace  Mann ;  Winship,  Horace  Mann,  the  Educator ;  Lang,  Horace 
Mann ;  F.  W.  Parker,  Article  in  Educational  Review,  Vol.  XII,  p.  65  ; 
Win.  T.  Harris,  Educational  Review,  Vol.  XII,  p.  105  ;  Martin,  Educa- 
tion in  Massachusetts. 

COLONEL  PARKER  says,  "  It  would  be  difficult  to  find  a 
child  ten  years  of  age  in  our  sixty-five  millions  who  does 
not  know  of  Abraham  Lincoln  or  George  Washington  ;  but 
the  third,  at  least,  in  the  list  of  the  builders  of  the  Ameri- 
can republic  is  not  known  to  millions  of  intelligent  people. 
Washington  and  Lincoln  represent  the  highest  types  of 
heroism,  patriotism,  and  wisdom  in  great  crises  of  republic- 
building  ;  Horace  Mann,  the  quiet  inner  building,  the  soul- 
development  of  the  nation."  l 

Horace  Mann  was  born  at  Franklin,  Massachusetts, 
May  4,  1796.  Inured  to  the  hard  work  of  the  farm,  with 
but  a  few  weeks'  schooling  in  the  winter,  never  blessed 
with  very  rugged  health,  left  at  the  age  of  thirteen  by  the 
death  of  his  father  with  the  responsibilities  of  a  man,  it  is  no 
wonder  that  he  "  retained  only  painful  recollections  of  the 
whole  period  which  ought  to  be,  with  every  child,  a  golden 
age  to  look  back  upon."  2 

1  Educational  Review,  Vol.  XII,  p.  65. 

2  Mrs.  Mann,  "  Life  of  Horace  Mann,"  p.  10. 

288 


MODERN  EDUCATORS  — MANN  289 

When  nearly  twenty  years  of  age,  through  the  influence 
of  Mr.  Barrett,  an  eccentric  teacher  who  came  to  the  vil- 
lage, he  decided  to  go  to  college,  and  in  six  months  he 
prepared  for  the  sophomore  class  of  Brown  University. 
This  preparation  was  a  tremendous  undertaking  which 
broke  down  his  health  for  life.  He  now  had  an  opportu- 
nity to  satisfy  the  cravings  for  knowledge,  which  the 
hardships  of  his  early  life  had  not  been  able  to  stifle. 
He  was  graduated  with  the  highest  honors  of  his  class 
and  decided  to  study  law.  He  spent  two  years  at  Brown 
University  as  tutor,  meanwhile  privately  studying  law, 
and  then  resigned  that  position  to  enter  the  law  school  at 
Litchfield,  Connecticut.  Two  years  later,  at  the  age  of 
twenty-seven,  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar. 

As  Statesman.  —  He  was  called  upon  to  serve  his  state 
in  the  legislature,  and  later  as  representative  in  Congress.1 

The  year  1837  marks  a  new  epoch  in  the  educational 
history  of  Massachusetts.  "  Although  Massachusetts  had 
had  schools  for  nearly  two  centuries,  the  free  school  had 
been,  to  a  great  degree,  a  charity  school  the  country  over. 
.  .  .  Horace  Mann,  like  Thomas  Jefferson,  saw  clearly 
that  there  could  be  no  evolution  of  a  free  people  without 
intelligence  and  morality,  and  looked  upon  the  common 
school  as  the  fundamental  means  of  development  of  men 
and  women  who  could  govern  themselves.  He  saw  clearly 
that  the  whole  problem  of  the  republic  which  was  present- 
ing1 itself  to  intelligent  educated  men  rested  upon  the  idea 
of  public  education."2 

As  Educator.  —  Accordingly,  having  secured  the  pas- 
sage of  a  law  establishing  a  State  Board  of  Education, 

1  Mr.  Mann  completed  the  term  made  vacant  by  the  death  of  John  Quincy 
Adams,  and  was  reflected  for  the  two  succeeding  terms. 

2  Colonel  Parker  in  article  cited. 

HIST.  OF  ED. —  19 


290  HISTORY   OF  EDUCATION 

Mr.  Mann  was  made  its  secretary  at  a  salary  of  one  thou- 
sand dollars  a  year.  To  accept  this  work,  he  gave  up  a 
lucrative  law  practice,  fine  prospects  of  political  prefer- 
ment, and  probable  fortune,  as  well  as  professional  fame. 
He  entered  upon  an  educational  campaign  full  of  discour- 
agement, colossal  in  its  undertaking,  and  sure  to  arouse 
bitterest  animosities.  Of  this  period  Colonel  Parker  says, 
"  The  story  of  his  early  struggles  in  this  direction  has  not 
yet  been  written.  When  it  is,  it  will  reveal  a  profound 
depth  of  heroism  rarely  equaled  in  the  history  of  the 
world."  Mr.  Mann  visited  all  parts  of  the  state,  lectur- 
ing to  parents  and  stimulating  the  teachers.  He  was  often 
received  with  coldness,  sometimes  with  active  hostility. 

His  Annual  Reports.  —  But  he  persevered  until  the 
whole  state  was  awakened.  He  continued  in  this  work 
for  twelve  years,  and  presented  its  results  in  his  An- 
nual Reports,  the  most  remarkable  documents  of  Amer- 
ican educational  literature.1  In  the  meantime,  he  visited 
Europe,  studied  the  schools,  and  gave  the  results  of  his 
investigations  in  his  celebrated  Seventh  Annual  Report. 

Mr.  Martin  summarizes  the  work  of  Horace  Mann  dur- 
ing these  twelve  years  as  follows  :  "  In  the  evolution  of  the 
Massachusetts  public  schools  during  these  twelve  years  of 
Mr.  Mann's  labors,  statistics  tell  us  that  the  appropria- 
tions for  public  schools  had  doubled ;  that  more  than  two 
million  dollars  had  been  spent  in  providing  better  school- 
houses  ;  that  the  wages  of  men  as  teachers  had  increased 
sixty-two  per  cent,  of  women  fifty-one  per  cent,  while  the 
whole  number  of  women  employed  as  teachers  had  in- 
creased fifty-four  per  cent ;  one  month  had  been  added  to 
the  average  length  of  the  schools ;  the  ratio  of  private 

1  For  an  analysis  of  these  Reports,  see  Dr.  Harris's  article  in  Educational 
Review,  Vol.  XII.  p.  112. 


MODERN  EDUCATORS— MANN  2QI 

school  expenditures  to  those  of  the  public  schools  had 
diminished  from  seventy-five  per  cent  to  thirty-six  per  cent ; 
the  compensation  of  school  committees  had  been  made 
compulsory,  and  their  supervision  was  more  general  and 
more  constant ;  three  normal  schools  had  been  established, 
and  had  sent  out  several  hundred  teachers,  who  were  mak- 
ing themselves  felt  in  all  parts  of  the  state." 1 

Love  for  the  Common  Schools.  —  He  believed  most  fully 
in  the  common  school,  declaring  that,  "This  institution 
is  the  greatest  discovery  ever  made  by  man.  ...  In  two 
grand  characteristic  attributes,  it  is  supereminent  over  all 
others :  first  in  its  universality,  for  it  is  capacious  enough 
to  receive  and  cherish  in  its  parental  bosom  every  child 
that  comes  into  the  world  ;  and  second,  in  the  timeliness  of 
the  aid  it  proffers,  —  its  early,  seasonable  supplies  of  coun- 
sel and  guidance  making  security  antedate  danger." 

In  his  first  Annual  Report  Mr.  Mann  asserts  that,  "  The 
object  of  the  common  school  system  is  to  give  to  every 
child  a  free,  straight,  solid  pathway,  by  which  he  can 
walk  directly  up  from  the  ignorance  of  an  infant  to  a 
knowledge  of  the  primary  duties  of  man."  Horace  Mann 
could  hardly  have  anticipated  the  kindergarten  for  the 
infant  years,  and  the  high  school  at  the  end  of  the  course, 
as  they  now  stand  in  the  common  school  systems  of  our 
country.  And  yet,  what  has  already  been  accomplished 
in  our  educational  scheme  fulfills  the  prophecy  implied  in 
his  words. 

The  best  known  and  most  important  of  Mr.  Mann's 
written  documents  is  his  Seventh  Annual  Report,  in  which 
he  gives  an  account  of  European  schools.  Concerning 
this  Mr.  Winship  says,  "  He  had  made  a  crisis,  and  his 
Seventh  Report  was  an  immortal  document ;  opposition  to 

1  "Education  in  Massachusetts,"  p.  174. 


292  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION" 

the  normal  schools  was  never  more  to  be  heard  in  the 
land,  and  oral  instruction,  the  word  method,  and  less 
corporal  punishment  were  certain  to  come  to  the  Boston 
schools."  l 

After  severing  his  connection  with  the  State  Board  of 
Education,  Mr.  Mann  served  in  Congress  from  1848  to 
1853,  and  was  defeated  in  his  candidacy  for  governor 
of  Massachusetts.  At  the  age  of  fifty-six  he  accepted  the 
presidency  of  Antioch  College  at  Yellow  Springs,  Ohio,  a 
position  which  he  held  until  his  death  in  1859.  He  closed 
his  last  address  to  the  graduating  class  at  Antioch  with 
these  noble  words  :  "  Be  ashamed  to  die  until  you  have  won 
some  victory  for  humanity."  He  himself  had  won  many 
great  victories  for  humanity,  — in  the  improvement  of  the 
common  school  systems  of  his  native  country ;  in  the  es- 
tablishment of  free  schools ;  in  the  founding  of  normal 
schools  where  teachers  might  be  trained ;  in  the  adoption 
of  milder  means  of  discipline;  in  the  improvement  of 
schoolhouses ;  in  the  better  support  of  schools  ;  in  better 
methods  of  instruction ;  and  in  the  inspiration  he  gave  to 
teachers  for  all  time.  Therefore  he  at  least  had  no  need 
to  be  "ashamed  to  die." 

1  "  Horace  Mann,"  p.  76. 


CHAPTER   XLII 

THE   SCHOOL   SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY 

Literature.  —  Parsons,  Prussian  Schools  through  American  Eyes ; 
Klemm,  European  Schools ;  Prince,  Methods  in  the  German  Schools ; 
Seeley,  The  German  Common  School  System ;  Russell,  German  Higher 
Schools  ;  Bolton,  Secondary  Education  in  Germany. 


WE  have  traced  the  historical  development  of  education 
to  the  present  time.  It  now  remains  for  us  to  examine 
briefly  the  educational  systems  of  a  few  leading  countries, 
in  order  that  comparisons  may  be  made,  lessons  drawn, 
and  the  present  condition  of  education  clearly  set  forth.1 

The  plan  of  discussion  to  be  followed  in  each  of  the 
four  systems  considered  will  embrace,  I,  Administration ; 
2,  School  Attendance ;  3,  the  Schools;  4,  Support  of  Schools  ; 
5,  the  Teachers, 

Administration.  —  Each  German  state  is  independent  in 
its  school  system,  though  there  are  many  features  in  com- 
mon, and  there  is  a  mutual  understanding  on  most  educa- 
tional questions  between  the  various  states,  which  makes 
their  systems  practically  uniform.  The  system  here  de- 
scribed is  that  of  Prussia,  which,  being  the  largest,  most 

1  It  will,  of  course,  be  impossible  within  the  limitations  of  this  work  to  give 
more  than  a  mere  outline  of  these  systems.  The  reader  will  find  full  discus- 
sions in  the  works  referred  to  in  the  Literature.  Particular  attention  is  called 
to  the  Reports  of  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education  from  the  year 
1895  to  ^e  present  time. 

293 


294  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

populous,  and  most  influential  of  the  states  comprised 
within  the  German  Empire,  as  well  as  the  foremost  in 
educational  development,  may  well  be  taken  as  a  type. 

There  is  a  minister  of  education  whose  jurisdiction  ex- 
tends over  the  whole  kingdom.  He  represents  the  school 
interests  in  the  Prussian  diet  or  Landtag,  listens  to  appeals, 
distributes  school  moneys,  and  is  the  general  educational 
executive  officer.  Each  of  the  thirteen  royal  provinces  has 
a  school  board  whose  presiding  officer  is  ex  officio  the  royal 
president  of  the  province.  With  him  are  associated  other 
royal  counselors,  and  pedagogically  trained  men,  —  school 
superintendents  and  principals.  This  board  consists  of 
men  of  highest  integrity  and  intelligence.  Their  duties 
extend  to  the  higher  institutions  of  learning,  and  to 
institutions  for  the  unfortunate  ;  they  have  charge  of  the 
school  finances  of  their  provinces,  adopt  the  school  books 
that  are  used  in  the  higher  schools,  and  appoint  teachers  in 
the  normal  schools.  They  report  annually  to  the  minister, 
and  as  much  more  frequently  as  he  may  require. 

The  thirteen  royal  provinces  are  subdivided  into  the  so- 
called  governments  (Regierungen),  of  which  Prussia  contains 
thirty-six.  These  governments  have  an  administrative  school 
board  similar  to  that  of  the  province,  with  duties  within 
their  territory  corresponding  to  those  of  the  provincial 
board.  They  come  into  close  touch  with  the  schools,  have 
a  voice  in  the  appointment  of  teachers  and  in  the  selection 
of  text-books  for  the  elementary  schools.  Their  work 
is  especially  with  the  common  schools,  while  that  of  the 
provincial  boards  is  with  the  higher  schools. 

The  governments  are  subdivided  into  districts.  There 
is  a  district  school  board  similar  to  that  of  the  larger 
territories  mentioned,  but  the  chief  and  most  important 
school  officer  of  the  district  is  the  school  inspector.  The 


SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY  295 

district  inspector  is  always  a  man  of  pedagogical  training 
and  experience.  He  is  appointed  for  life  and  devotes  his 
whole  time  to  the  schools  in  his  district.  His  efficient  and 
wise  inspection  of  the  schools  insures  their  success.  The 
district  school  board  erects  school  buildings,  determines 
the  amount  of  the  teachers'  salaries,  oversees  their  pen- 
sions, enforces  compulsory  attendance  laws,  decides  upon 
taxable  property,  fixes  boundary  lines,  and  provides  for  the 
finances. 

Finally,  there  is  the  local  school  board  for  each  separate 
school.  These  men  have  charge  of  the  external  matters 
of  the  school  such  as  the  direct  enforcement  of  attendance, 
the  repairs,  supplies,  etc. ;  but  they  may  not  interfere  with 
the  teacher  in  his  work.  In  the  country  villages  they  have 
a  voice  in  the  choice  of  the  teacher.  The  teacher  may 
appeal  to  them  in  matters  that  need  immediate  attention. 

In  the  administration  of  the  schools  men  of  the  highest 
character  are  chosen  without  reference  to  their  political 
leanings.  There  are  usually  teachers  among  the  number, 
on  the  principle  that  those  who  have  made  the  most  care- 
ful study  of  education  are  the  most  competent  to  admin- 
ister it. 

School  Attendance.  —  Every  child  in  normal  health  is 
required  to  attend  school  between  the  ages  of  six  and 
fourteen  for  every  day  that  the  school  is  in  session.  Par- 
ents are  held  responsible  for  the  attendance  of  their  chil- 
dren, and  may  be  fined  or  imprisoned  for  non-fulfillment 
of  the  requirements  of  the  law.  In  case  parents  are  un- 
able to  secure  the  attendance  of  their  children,  the  latter 
are  placed  in  reform  schools.  The  law  is  carried  out  with 
great  strictness  and  wonderful  efficiency.  For  example, 
in  1893,  out  of  5,299,310  children  of  school  age  in  Prussia, 
there  were  only  945  unexcused  absentees,  —  that  is,  2  in 


296  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

10,000.  All  parents  expect  their  children  to  be  in  school 
every  day,  and  the  children  grow  up  fully  impressed  with 
the  idea  that  they  are  to  attend  school  regularly.  The  chief 
reason  for  the  efficiency  of  compulsory  attendance  in  Ger- 
many lies  in  the  fact  that  it  covers  every  school  day,  and 
therefore  does  not  allow  the  formation  of  habits  of  truancy. 

The  Schools.  —  The  common  school  (Volksschule)  of 
Germany  reaches  every  child,  as  we  have  seen.  In  vil- 
lages the  sexes  are  taught  together ;  but  in  cities  they  are 
generally  separated.  The  school  hours  are  from  eight  to 
eleven  in  the  forenoon,  for  six  days  in  the  week,  and  from 
two  to  four  for  four  days  in  the  week,  Wednesday  and 
Saturday  afternoons  being  holidays.  These  hours  may 
be  varied  to  suit  local  conditions.  The  school  is  in  session 
for  about  forty-two  weeks  each  year.  Each  teacher  is 
required  to  give  about  twenty-eight  hours  of  service  per 
week,  while  the  pupils  must  attend  from  sixteen  hours 
(for  beginners)  to  twenty-eight.  The  common  schools  of 
Prussia  are  now  practically  free.  The  common  school  is 
intended  for  the  common  people,  and  it  is  not  followed 
by  a  high  or  secondary  school.  This  is  the  greatest  weak- 
ness of  the  German  school  system.  It  perpetuates  the 
class  system,  and  effectually  prevents  the  child  from  rising 
above  his  station. 

The  sole  opportunity  for  the  child  of  the  lower  classes 
to  receive  a  higher  education  is  through  the  normal  school, 
and  even  this  privilege  is  limited  to  a  small  number  of  the 
pupils  who  show  special  ability.  We  may  mention  also 
the  Continuation  schools,  which  are  held  evenings  and 
Sundays.  These  schools  are  rapidly  multiplying  and 
becoming  more  efficient,  as  many  of  them  are  held  in 
the  daytime.  They  furnish  an  opportunity  for  the  child 
who  has  completed  the  common  school  to  review  his  work, 


SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY  297 

and  also  to  add  some  subjects  that  will  be  of  utility  in 
his  lifework. 

In  general,  there  are  three  classes  of  secondary  schools, 

—  the  Gymnasium,  the  Realgymnasium,  and  Oberrealscliule. 
Each  prepares  for  the  university,  and  each  has  nine  classes  ; 
namely,    Sexta,    Quinta,    Quarta,    Untertertiay    Obertertia, 
Untersecunda,    Obersecnnda,    Unterprima,    and   Oberprima. 
These  schools  differ  chiefly  in  the  amount  of  classics  they 
offer,  the  Gymnasium  laying  stress  upon  the  classics  and 
the  Realschule  upon  the  realities.1    Neither  of  these  schools 
succeeds  the  common  school,  and  the  boy  who  is  to  pursue 
one  of  these  courses  of  study  must  begin  at  not  later  than 
nine  or  ten  years  of  age.2     Thus,  if  a  professional  life  is 
chosen  for  a  boy,  he  cannot  attend  the  common  school, 

—  at  least  not  for  more  than  the  first  three  or  four  years,  — 
but  must  be  sent  to  one  of  the  schools  above  mentioned,  for 
they  alone  prepare  for  the  university,  and  without  a  univer- 
sity course  he  cannot  enter  a  profession.     The  university 
is  the  crowning  institution  of  the  German  school  system. 

Support  of  Schools.  —  About  one  half  of  the  expense  of 
the  schools  is  paid  from  the  general  state  fund,  one  third 
from  local  taxation,  and  the  balance  comes  from  income 
from  endowments,  church  funds,  tuition,  etc.  The  general 
tendency  is  to  make  the  schools  free,  according  to  the  rec- 
ommendation of  the  minister  of  education,  but  some  com- 
munities still  continue  to  charge  tuition.  In  these  cases, 
there  are  poor  schools  for  those  who  cannot  pay  tuition, 
thus  affording  school  privileges  to  all. 

1  In  addition  to  these  schools,  there  are  also  the  Progymnasium,  the  Real- 
progymnasium,  and  the  Realschule,  which,  as  their  names  indicate,  are  modi- 
fied forms  of  the  principal  types.     These  schools  do  not  offer  the  full  nine  years' 
course.     See  footnote  on  p.  236  for  explanation  of  the  work  of  these  schools. 

2  Russell's  "German  Higher  Schools"  fully  describes  these  institutions. 


298  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION- 

The  Teachers.  —  All  teachers  of  the  Prussian  common 
schools  are  normal  graduates,  or  have  had  an  equal  peda- 
gogic preparation.1  Graduates  of  the  university  seldom 
enter  the  common  school  work  ;  they  teach  in  the  secondary 
schools,  in  private  schools,  and  as  tutors.  The  common 
school  teachers  generally  come  from  the  common  schools. 
If  a  child  shows  special  aptness  for  teaching,  the  attention 
of  the  school  inspector  is  called  to  him,  and,  with  consent  of 
his  parents,  he  is  sent  to  a  preparatory  school  for  three 
years.  His  work  there  is  entirely  academic  in  character. 
At  seventeen  he  enters  the  normal  school  and  has  another 
year  of  academic  work,  after  which  he  begins  his  technical 
work.  His  normal  course  is  three  years,  the  last  year 
being  given  almost  entirely  to  professional  work.  Each 
class  in  the  normal  school  contains  from  thirty  to  thirty- 
six  students,  thus  making  the  total  number  of  students  in  a 
German  normal  school  about  one  hundred.  As  only  about 
thirty  can  enter  from  the  whole  district,  it  will  appear  that 
the  opportunities  for  children  to  extend  the  common  school 
course  with  the  view  to  become  teachers  are  very  limited. 

After  completing  the  normal  course,  the  graduate  is 
provisionally  appointed  to  a  position  for  three  years.  He 
is  now  under  the  oversight  of  his  former  principal,  as  well 
as  of  the  district  inspector.  If  he  proves  successful  in 
teaching,  he  is  required  to  pass  a  final  examination,  chiefly 
on  pedagogical  questions,  and  then  has  a  life  tenure,  and 
can  be  removed  only  on  the  ground  of  inefficiency  or  im- 
morality. The  average  tenure  of  office  with  teachers  is 

1  In  1893  there  were  only  241  teachers  out  of  71,731  in  Prussia,  who  were 
outside  of  the  above  requirement.  These  241  were  old  teachers  who  began 
before  the  law  was  so  strict,  and  who,  because  of  their  efficiency,  are  retained. 
In  a  few  years  this  band  will  entirely  disappear,  and  all  will  be  normal 
graduates. 


SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY  299 

twenty-five  years.  The  salary  is  often  very  low,  but  with 
free  rent,  fuel,  and  light,  the  schoolmaster's  income  is  by 
no  means  inadequate.  His  salary  increases  with  the  years 
of  service,  and  his  prospective  pension  also  increases  year 
by  year.1 

The  German  schoolmaster  is  a  state  officer.  He  com- 
mands, by  virtue  of  his  position,  the  respect  which  his 
character  and  the  great  work  that  he  is  doing  deserve. 
"  It  is  the  schoolmaster  that  has  won  our  battles,"  says 
Von  Moltke ;  and  it  is  he  that  is  preparing  Germany  for 
the  arts  of  peace  as  well  as  those  of  war. 

The  Prussian  school  system  is  the  most  efficient  in  the 
world,  at  least  so  far  as  the  education  of  the  masses  is  con- 
cerned. It  has  practically  obliterated  illiteracy  in  the  king- 
dom, more  than  99^-  per  cent  of  the  recruits  received  into 
the  army  in  1893  being  able  to  read  and  write. 

The  three  most  important  features  of  the  German  school 
system  are  :  — 

1.  Only  professionally  trained  teachers  can  be  employed. 

2.  Such  teachers  are  appointed  to  permanent  positions. 

3.  The  attendance  of  every  child  during  the  entire  school 
year  is  compulsory. 

1  For  full  statement  of  salaries  and  pensions,  see  "  German  Common  School 
System,"  pp.  172,  195.  Recent  legislation  has  greatly  improved  the  salaries 
of  teachers  in  Prussia.  The  minimum  salary  for  men  is  now  $333.00,  with 
periodical  advances  which,  with  indemnities  for  rent,  make  possible  a  maxi- 
mum salary  of  $  1 142.50.  For  women,  the  minimum  salary  is  $  286.00,  with 
increases  to  a  maximum  of  $  582.00.  If  the  teacher  is  retired  after  forty  years' 
service,  a  pension  equal  to  seventy-five  per  cent  of  the  salary  is  granted. 
Though  the  German  teacher's  salary  is  much  smaller  than  that  of  the  average 
American  teacher,  taking  into  account  the  greater  purchasing  power  of  money 
in  Germany,  the  simple  habits,  and  fewer  demands  upon  the  purse,  the 
German  teacher  is  fully  as  well  off  as  the  American  teacher. 


CHAPTER   XLIII 
THE   SCHOOL  SYSTEM   OF  FRANCE 

Literature.  —  Parsons,  French  Schools  through  American  Eyes ; 
Richard,  The  School  System  of  France  ;  Weigert,  Die  Volksschule  in 
Frankreich  ;  Schroeder,  Das  Volksschulwesen  Frankreichs  ;  United 
States  Commissioner's  Reports. 


Administration.  —  France,  like  Germany,  has  a  minister 
of  education  who  sits  in  the  cabinet  of  the  president.  The 
work  of  his  office  is  divided  into  three  departments,  higJier, 
secondary,  and  primary,  and  at  the  head  of  each  there  is  a 
director.  There  are  two  advisory  bodies  in  charge  of  edu- 
cation. One  has  general  oversight  of  all  the  school  inter- 
ests of  France.  The  other  is  divided  into  three  boards, 
appointed  by  the  minister  himself,  for  supervision  of  the 
three  departments  above  mentioned.  The  general  board 
consists  of  sixty  members,  fifteen  appointed  by  the  presi- 
dent of  the  republic,  and  the  others  appointed  by  the  board 
itself  whenever  vacancies  occur.  This  body  meets  once  a 
year  to  hear  reports,  to  pass  upon  the  general  school  policy, 
and  to  legislate  for  the  schools.  Out  of  its  membership  is 
chosen  an  executive  committee  that  meets  once  a  week, 
and  upon  which  devolves  the  chief  management  of  educa- 
tional affairs.  This  committee  is  answerable  to  the  general 
board,  to  which  it  renders  an  annual  report.  Men  of  the 
highest  character  and  intelligence  constitute  this  board. 

The  whole  of  France  is  divided  into  seventeen  parts 
called  academies.  These  divisions  do  not  coincide  with  the 

300 


SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  FRANCE  301 

political  divisions,  but  are  made  merely  for  convenience  in 
school  administration.  Each  academic  has  a  school  board 
to  which  is  committed  the  general  oversight  of  all  edu- 
cational interests  within  its  territory,  and  particularly  the 
care  of  the  higher  schools. 

A  narrower  division  is  into  ctipartements.  There  are 
ninety  of  these  in  France  and  Algiers.  Each  is  governed 
by  an  educational  council  which  has  charge  of  the  elemen- 
tary schools.  The  principal  officer  of  a  departement  is  a 
school  inspector,  a  trained  educator  who  devotes  all  his 
time  to  the  schools.  In  each  departement  there  is  a  normal 
school  for  each  sex,  though  in  a  few  instances  two  de"- 
partements  combine  to  maintain  one  normal  school. 

The  departement  is  subdivided  into  arrondissements. 
Each  has  an  executive  officer  and  a  council  in  close 
touch  with  the  schools.  Lastly  there  are  the  cantons, 
whose  school  board  has  direct  control  of  each  individual 
school.  „ 

In  this  manner  from  the  highest  to  the  lowest  division 
there  are  executive  officers  with  well-defined  duties  — 
all  working  together  in  perfect  harmony  and  with  great 
efficiency.  Trained  teachers  often  sit  in  these  councils 
as  members  and  advisers.  Thus  the  highest  pedagog- 
ical training  of  the  republic  is  utilized  to  obtain  the 
best  administration  of  the  school  interests. 

School  Attendance.  —  School  attendance  is  compulsory 
upon  children  from  six  to  thirteen  years  of  age  for  every 
school  day.  As  in  Germany,  the  child  is  not  compelled  to 
attend  the  public  school,  but  must  receive  instruction  for 
the  required  time  and  in  a  manner  approved  by  the  State. 
It  is  the  right  of  the  child  to  be  educated,  and  the  State 
asserts  its  prerogative  to  secure  that  right  to  the  child,  what- 
ever be  the  attitude  of  the  parent.  But  the  manner  of  se- 


302  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION' 

curing  it  is  left  to  the  parent  if  he  chooses  to  exercise  that 
privilege.  Although  France  has  had  compulsory  education 
only  since  1882,  the  law  is  effective,  and  grows  more  so 
each  year.  In  1895,  91  per  cent  of  all  the  children  of 
school  age  attended  school  regularly. 

The  Schools.  —  In  the  arrangement  of  her  schools, 
and  the  perfect  articulation  between  them  from  the  motlier 
school  to  the  university,  France  has  the  most  perfect 
system  in  the  world.  The  mother  schools  (Scales  mater- 
nelles)  take  children  from  two  to  six  years  of  age  and 
care  for  them  from  early  morning  till  evening,  thereby 
permitting  parents  to  go  out  to  service.  They  combine 
the  idea  of  the  day  nursery  and  the  kindergarten. 
These  schools,  in  communes  of  2000  or  more,  are  sup- 
ported by  the  State,  as  are  other  schools. 

Instead  of  the  mother  school,  sometimes  the  infant 
school  (Jcole  infantine)  takes  the  child  from  four  to 
seven  and  prepares  him  for  the  primary  school.  This 
school  is  more  nearly  like  the  kindergarten  than  the 
mother  school.  It  is  supported  wholly  by  the  State  and 
is  a  part  of  the  school  system,  its  work  being  entirely 
in  sympathy  with  that  which  follows.  In  this  respect, 
France  has  taken  a  more  advanced  step  than  any  other 
nation. 

With  the  lower  primary  school  (tcole  primaire  tthnen- 
taire\  which  covers  the  period  of  from  six  to  thirteen  years 
of  age,  begins  compulsory  education.  The  sexes  are  always 
taught  separately  except  in  villages  of  less  than  five  hun- 
dred inhabitants.  The  pupils  all  dress  in  the  same  garb. 
The  school  is  in  session  five  days  in  the  week,  Thursdays 
being  free.  There  is  no  religious  instruction  in  the  schools. 
A  peculiar  and  very  important  factor  is  a  book  of  regis- 
tration for  each  child,  in  which  specimens  of  work  in  each 


SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  FRANCE  303 

subject  are  entered  once  a  month  for  the  whole  school 
course.  This  book  is  kept  at  the  school,  and  furnishes  an 
accurate  indication  of  progress  to  parents  or  inspectors.1 

Following  the  lower  primary  school  is  the  higher  pri- 
mary (ecole  primaire  snpe'rieure\  which  has  two  courses,  one 
for  pupils  who  wish  to  review  their  elementary  work  and 
add  some  subjects,  with  the  view  of  better  preparing  for 
the  ordinary  walks  of  life ;  and  the  high  school  course  for 
those  who  wish  to  prepare  for  academic  life.  The  former 
is  indefinite  in  length ;  the  latter  requires  five  years,  thus 
being  completed  at  the  eighteenth  year.  Here  appears 
another  superiority  over  the  German  system,  in  which,  it 
will  be  remembered,  there  is  no  connection  between  the 
common  and  the  high  school. 

These  high  schools  prepare  for  the  normal  school  and 
for  the  university.  There  are  also  many  other  kinds  of 
schools  under  State  support,  —  such  as  technical  schools, 
apprentice  schools,  schools  of  mines,  etc.  In  the  advan- 
tages offered  to  young  men  for  perfecting  themselves  in  a 
trade  or  calling,  France  surpasses  all  other  countries. 

Finally  there  are  the  State  universities,  fifteen  in. num- 
ber, the  professors  of  which  are  appointed  by  the  State. 
While  the  State  pays  all  salaries,  the  maintenance  of  the 
buildings  depends  upon  fees,  endowments,  and  such  local 
support  as  is  obtainable.  These  institutions  are  open  to 
students  from  the  higher  primary  schools,  thus  making  a 
complete  system  from  the  lowest  school  to  the  highest,  and 
offering  remarkable  advantages  to  all.  All  degrees  are 
given  by  the  State,  thereby  securing  perfect  uniformity. 

Support  of  Schools.  —  All  of  the  schools  above  men- 
tioned, from  the  mother  school  to  the  university,  are  free. 

1  See  Parsons,  "  French  Schools  through  American  Eyes,"  p.  82. 


304  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

The  expenses  are  distributed  as  follows:  (i)  The  State 
pays  the  salaries  of  all  teachers,  administrators,  and  in- 
spectors, and  all  the  expenses  of  the  normal  schools.  Thus 
it  will  be  seen  that  the  bulk  of  the  expense  of  education  is 
borne  by  the  State  in  general.  (2)  The  dfyartemcnts  erect 
the  normal  school  and  furnish  the  apparatus  and  supplies 
for  the  same.  (3)  The  communes  pay  for  the  needed  sup- 
plies, for  the  janitor,  and  for  other  local  necessities  of  the 
elementary  schools.  They  may  also  tax  themselves  to 
increase  the  salaries  of  teachers  beyond  the  State  allow- 
ance. Each  community  thus  has  the  power  to  decide 
whether  it  will  be  content  with  an  average  school,  merely 
fulfilling  the  State  requirements,  or  whether  it  will  have  a 
superior  school  taught  by  the  best  teachers  obtainable. 

The  Teachers.  — There  are  two  classes  of  normal  schools 
in  France,  the  elementary,  of  which  there  are  eighty-seven 
for  men  and  eighty-five  for  women,  —  practically  one  for 
each  sex  in  each  of  the  departments,  —  and  the  higher, 
of  which  there  is  one  for  men,  one  for  women,  and  one 
for  kindergartners.  Nearly  all  teachers  are  graduates  of 
normp.1  schools,  and  as  no  candidates  for  positions  are  con- 
sidered unless  they  hold  a  normal  certificate,  in  the  near 
future  all  the  teachers  of  France  will  be  professionally 
trained. 

Candidates  for  admission  to  the  normal  school  must  be 
at  least  sixteen  years  of  age,  of  good  moral  character,  and 
of  fair  abilities.  They  must  pledge  themselves  to  teach  for 
not  less  than  ten  years.1  The  elementary  course  covers  three 
years.  After  graduation,  the  young  teacher  is  appointed 
provisionally  until  he  has  taken  a  final  examination,  which 
must  be  within  ten  years.  If  he  has  been  successful  in 

1  This  is  no  hardship,  as  they  fully  expect  to  devote  their  lives  to  teaching. 


SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  FRANCE 


305 


the  schoolroom,  as  well  as  in  this  second  examination,  he 
becomes  a  permanent  teacher,  and  can  be  removed  only 
for  immorality. 

The  course  in  the  advanced  normal  school  takes  three 
or  more  years,  depending  upon  the  preparation  with 
which  the  candidate  enters.  Only  those  between  eighteen 
and  twenty-five  can  be  admitted.  These  schools  train 
principals,  superintendents,  inspectors,  and  teachers  for 
the  elementary  normal  schools.  They  are  the  model 
schools  of  France,  and  shape  the  educational  practice  of 
the  republic.  Graduates  from  the  elementary  normal 
schools  are  not  debarred  from  entering  the  higher  normal 
schools  ;  thus  ambitious  teachers  are  encouraged  to  pre- 
pare themselves  for  higher  work. 

No  other  country  in  the  world  does  so  much  as  France 
to  assist  young  teachers  in  their  preparation.  In  all  of 
the  normal  schools  mentioned,  tuition,  board,  room,  and 
books  are  free.  And  when  the  young  teacher  has  been 
graduated,  the  State  recognizes  its  own  work  by  giving 
him  the  preference  in  appointments. 

There  are  five  classes  of  teachers  in  the  elementary 
schools,  the  lowest  being  the  fifth.  The  young  graduate 
teacher  begins  in  the  lowest  class  and  works  his  way  up. 
The  annual  salaries  for  the  different  classes  are  indicated 
by  the  following  table  :  — 


CLASSES  OF  TEACHERS 

MEN 

WOMEN 

Fifth  Class  

J^oo.oo 

$2OO.OO 

Fourth  Class   

240  oo 

240.00 

300  oo 

280.00 

360.00 

300.00 

First  Class  

400.00 

320.00 

HIST.  OF  ED.  —  20 


306 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


Additional  allowances  are  made  in  large  schools,   and 
the  communes  often  supplement  the  above  amounts. 
The  annual  salaries  of  principals  are  as  follows  :  — 


PRINCIPALS 

HIGHER 
PRIMARY 

NORMAL  SCHOOLS 

Both  Sexes 

Men 

Women 

Fifth  Class  

$360.00 
4OO.OO 
45O.OO 
5OO.OO 
560.00 

$700.00 
8OO.OO 
QOO.OO 
IOOO.OO 
IIOO.OO 

$6OO.OO 
7OO.OO 
8OO.OO 
QOO.OO 
IOOO.OO 

Fourth  Class     

Third  Class       

Second  Class    

First  Class   

The  assistants  in  these  schools  receive  :  — 


HIGHER 
PRIMARY 

NORMAL 

SCHOOLS 

Both  Sexes 

Men 

Women 

Fifth  Class  

$240.00 

$5OO.OO 

$44O.OO 

28o.OO 

C4.O.OO 

480.00 

Third  Class      

32O.OO 

580.00 

52O.OO 

Second  Class    

380.00 

62O.OO 

560  oo 

First  Class  

44O.OO 

68O.OO 

600.00 

In  addition  to  these  amounts  there  is  also  a  small  allow- 
ance for  rent. 

After  thirty-five  years  of  service,  the  teacher  may  retire 
upon  three  fourths  of  his  salary  as  a  pension. 

Without  doubt  France  has  outstripped  all  other  nations 
in  educational  progress  during  the  last  twenty-five  years,  — 
the  period  in  which  her  school  system  has  been  constructed. 
The  percentage  of  illiterates  during  that  period  was  reduced 


SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  FRANCE  307 

from  17  to  4,  and  yet  recent  statistics  show  that  this  prog- 
ress has  been  retarded  since  the  number  of  conscripts  in 
the  army  in  1907  who  were  illiterate  was  n,ooo  greater 
than  in  1900,  with  5000  more  who  could  scarcely  read. 
This  has  led  to  more  stringent  compulsory  laws. 

The  four  great  steps  in  the  development  of  the  French 
school  system  are  as  follows:  (i)  the  establishment  of  free 
schools  (1881);  (2)  compulsory  education  and  the  secularisa- 
tion of  the  schools  (1882);  (3)  the  restriction  of  teachers  to 
lay  Persons  (I886);1  and  (4)  the  suppression  of  all  teaching 
orders  to  take  place  within  ten  years  (1904).  As  a  result  of 
the  last  law  practically  all  of  the  clerical  schools  have  been 
closed  and  teachers  belonging  to  various  religious  orders 
have  been  eliminated.  The  schools  are  thus  absolutely 
under  state  control. 

The  strong  features  of  the  French  school  system  may  be 
stated  as  follows :  — 

1.  Completeness  and  harmony  of  the  system,  covering  the 
period  from  early  childhood  till  the  prescribed  education  is 
finished. 

2.  Thoroughly  trained  teachers. 

3.  Two  kinds  of  normal  schools  to  meet  the  various  edu- 
cational requirements  of  teachers. 

4.  Liberal  support  of  schools  of  all  kinds. 

5.  Admirable  administration  of  the  schools. 

1  Previous  to  this  the  members  of  religious  orders  could  teach  in  the  public 
schools. 

NOTE. — In  1902  the  government  still  further  restricted  the  teaching  by 
religious  orders.  It  is  now  proposed  not  only  to  forbid  all  teaching  by  these 
orders,  but  also  to  sequestrate  the  property  of  such  congregations  as  exist 
solely  for  teaching  purposes.  This  will  close  about  3500  schools  of  the 
Christian  Brothers  which  have  existed  for  a  long  time,  and  necessitate  the 
organization  by  the  government  of  corresponding  school  facilities  to  supply 
their  place.  Five  years  are  allowed  to  effect  the  change. 


CHAPTER   XLIV 
THE   SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  ENGLAND 

Literature.  —  Sharpless,  English  Education;  Craik,  Education  and 
the  State  ;  Barnard,  English  Pedagogy  ;  Clark,  The  State  and  Educa- 
tion ;  Gill,  Systems  of  Education ;  Balfour,  Educational  Systems  of 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland ;  United  States  Commissioner's  Reports  for 
1889  to  1902. 

NEARLY  a  thousand  years  ago  Alfred  the  Great  encour- 
aged education  of  the  higher  classes  to  the  exclusion  of 
the  masses  —  a  principle  that  has  governed  education  in 
England  until  within  recent  times.  Statistics  taken  in  1845 
showed  that  only  one  in  six  of  the  inhabitants  could  read, 
one  in  four  write,  and  one  in  fifty  cipher  as  far  as  the  Rule 
of  Three.  Since  1870  important  changes  have  been  made, 
and  the  number  of  children  in  the  elementary  schools  of 
England  has  increased  from  1,500,000  in  1870  to  nearly 
7,000,000  in  IQI2.1 

"The  principal  features  of  the  law  of  1870  were  (i)  the 
obligation  assumed  by  the  government  to  secure  school 
provision  for  all  children  of  ages  5  to  14;  (2)  the  recog- 
nition or  creation  of  local  agencies  (private  or  church 
managers  or  elected  boards)  for  the  execution  of  this  pur- 
pose; (3)  provision  for  securing  efficient  instruction  by 
means  of  an  annual  grant  from  the  treasury  to  be  distrib- 
uted to  the  local  managers  upon  the  results  of  examination 
and  inspection  by  government  inspectors ;  (4)  the  creation 
of  a  central  agency  to  carry  out  the  provisions  on  the  part 

1  The  total  enrollment  in  1912  was  6,852,120,  or  16.7  per  cent  of  the 
population. 

308 


SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  ENGLAND  309 

of  the  government  and  of  new  local  agencies  or  school 
boards  which  every  school  district  must  elect  except  upon 
satisfactory  evidence  that  schools  efficient  and  adequate  to 
the  needs  of  the  district  were  otherwise  provided;  (5)  the 
admission  of  private  and  public  elementary  schools  to  a 
share  in  the  government  grant  upon  the  same  conditions ; 
(6)  the  requirements  that  board  schools  should  be  strictly 
non-sectarian  and  the  children  of  private  schools  protected 
from  enforced  sectarian  instruction  by  a  conscience  clause."1 
The  most  important  modifications  of  this  law  are  the  laws 
of  1899  and  1903.  The  law  of  1899  has  reference  to  the 
general  administration  of  education  in  England  and  Wales, 
while  that  of  1903  entirely  changes  the  local  management 
of  schools  and  extends  the  sphere  of  public  education  to 
secondary  as  well  as  elementary  schools. 

Administration,  i.  General.  —  Under  the  provisions  of 
the  law  of  1899  the  general  administration  of  educational 
affairs  is  committed  to  a  board  of  education  consisting  of 
a  president,  appointed  by  the  crown,  lord  president  of  the 
council,  the  principal  secretaries  of  state,  the  first  com- 
missioner of  the  treasury,  and  the  chancellor  of  the 
exchequer  —  not  less  than  five  nor  more  than  fifteen  mem- 
bers. By  means  of  a  sufficient  number  of  royal  inspectors 
who  are  trained  educators,  whose  duty  it  is  to  visit  the 
schools  and  report  thereon,  the  board  of  education  is  able 
to  reach  every  school  in  the  kingdom.  There  is  also  a 
consultation  committee,  two-thirds  of  whom  are  "persons 
representing  universities  and  bodies  interested  in  educa- 
tion," whose  office  is  to  advise  the  board  of  education. 

2.  Counties  and  County  Boroughs.  —  By  the  terms  of 
the  law  of  1903  the  council  of  every  county  and  of 

1  Report  of  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education  for  1896-1897, 
Vol.  I,  p.  1 2. 


310  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

every  county  borough  are  constituted  a  "local  education 
authority,"  which  controls  secular  instruction  in  all  elemen- 
tary schools  within  its  district,  and  performs  the  duties  of 
former  school  boards  and  school  attendance  committees. 
They  may  also  establish  high  schools.  In  boroughs  of 
over  10,000  and  cities  of  over  20,000  inhabitants  a  special 
board  or  "  local  education  authority  "  is  allowed. 

3.  Local  Managers.  —  All  public  undenominational 
(board)  schools  have  a  body  of  six  managers,  four  of 
whom  are  appointed  by  the  "  local  education  authority  " 
and  two  by  the  minor  local  authority.  All  public  denomi- 
national (voluntary)  schools  shall  also  have  six  managers, 
four  of  whom  are  foundation  managers  and  two  are  ap- 
pointed by  state  authority.  A  greater  number  of  local 
managers  may  be  chosen,  but  the  above  proportion  of 
members  must  hold. 

School  Attendance.  —  The  school  age  is  from  five  to  four- 
teen, and  the  local  authorities  are  required  to  compel 
attendance  for  that  period  excepting  in  case  where  the 
pupil  has  obtained  the  educational  certificate  of  exemption, 
which  cannot  be  given  before  the  child  is  twelve  years  of 
age.  The  average  attendance  in  1912  reached  nearly  89 
per  cent  of  the  enrollment.  England  has  stringent  laws  in 
regard  to  the  employment  of  children  in  factories,  mines, 
etc.,  which  are  well  enforced. 

The  Schools.  —  We  have  already  mentioned  the  board 
and  the  voluntary  schools  which  supply  the  principal  means 
of  elementary  education'.  The  voluntary  schools  are  under 
the  fostering  care  of  the  Church,  and  their  enrollment  in- 
cludes nearly  half  of  the  children.  Secondary  educa- 
tion is  carried  on  chiefly  in  private  schools,  though  the 
law  of  1903  permits  the  establishment  of  high  schools 
to  follow  elementary  education.  The  private  secondary 


SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  ENGLAND  311 

schools  are  of  two  general  classes,  "  grammar  "  and  "  pub- 
lic "  schools.  The  former  are  intended  for  the  middle 
classes,  their  main  purpose  being  to  prepare  for  civil  ser- 
vice, while  the  latter  are  the  great  endowed  schools  like 
Rugby,  Eton,  etc. 

Support  of  Schools.  —  The  expense  of  the  elementary 
schools  is  met  by  parliamentary  grants,  by  local  taxes, 
and  by  endowments.  Parliamentary  grants  cover  about  48 
per  cent  of  the  total,  and  the  balance  is  made  up  from  local 
rates  and  other  sources.  Formerly  both  denominational 
and  undenominational  schools  participated  alike  in  the  gov- 
ernment grants,  but  the  former  were  compelled  to  make  up 
the  balance  needed  by  private  subscriptions,  school  pence, 
etc.,  while  the  latter  were  allowed  to  levy  a  local  tax  for 
this  purpose.  Under  the  law  of  1903  both  may  share 
alike  in  the  local  tax,  thereby  removing  the  necessity  for 
private  subscriptions. 

The  Teachers.  —  The  training  of  teachers  is  as  peculiar 
as  the  other  features  of  the  English  system.  Lancaster 
and  Bell  introduced  the  monitorial  system,  by  which  one 
teacher  could  take  charge  of  a  large  school,  the  older 
pupils  teaching  the  younger  ones.  This  idea  has  been 
perpetuated  in  the  "pupil  teacher"  scheme.  Children 
fifteen  years  old  are  apprenticed  to  a  school  to  assist  in 
the  work,  and  in  return  receive  instruction  and  a  small 
stipend.  At  eighteen  or  nineteen  they  enter  the  teachers' 
college  for  a  two  years'  course.  They  may  instead  at  this 
time  take  an  examination  for  the  teachers'  certificate,  and 
if  successful,  they  are  known  as  "assistant  teachers." 
That  the  "  pupil  teacher  "  idea  has  lost  its  force  is  shown 
by  the  following  facts  :  From  1876  to  1893  the  increase  of 
graduate  teachers  was  114  per  cent,  the  increase  of  "as- 
sistant teachers  "  691  per  cent,  while  there  was  a  decrease 


312  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

of  15  per  cent  in  the  number  of  "pupil  teachers."  This 
would  seem  to  indicate  that  England  is  demanding  better 
prepared  teachers.  The  131  teachers'  colleges  graduate 
about  1900  students  each  year,  which  is  about  two  thirds 
of  the  number  of  teachers  needed. 

Teachers'  positions  are  practically  permanent,  and  the 
salaries  are  good,  being  in  1912  an  average  for  certificated 
teachers  of  $725  a  year  for  men  and  $495  f°r  women. 

Each  teacher  is  entitled  to  a  pension  at  the  age  of  65. 
This  amounts  to  at  least  $330  for  men  who  have  been  in 
the  service  from  their  twenty-first  year,  and  $225  for 
women.  If  obliged  to  retire  earlier  on  account  of  break- 
down, the  amount  of  pension  will  be  proportionate  to  the 
length  of  service.  Men  teachers  contribute  three  pounds 
annually  and  women  two  pounds  to  this  fund,  while  the 
State  appropriates  the  balance  needed. 

When  one  considers  the  traditions  that  have  controlled 
English  education  for  centuries,  and  recalls  the  conserva- 
tism that  rules  English  life,  one  can  only  marvel  at  the 
tremendous  strides  taken  by  England  during  the  last  third 
of  a  century.  Victor  Hugo  says  :  "  The  English  patrician 
order  is  patrician  in  the  absolute  sense  of  the  word.  No 
feudal  system  was  ever  more  illustrious,  more  terrible,  and 
more  tenacious  of  life."  England  has  had  to  overcome 
her  patrician  ideas  in  regard  to  education,  and  her  growth 
in  the  last  thirty  years  has  been  more  rapid  and  more 
effectual  than  for  a  thousand  years  before.  Although  she 
still  has  many  problems  to  solve,  her  recent  educational 
enterprise  places  her  in  the  front  rank  among  the  nations 
of  the  world  in  school  matters.  The  law  of  1903  con- 
sisted of  many  compromises  which  satisfy  neither  party. 
It  will  doubtless  be  followed  by  still  further  changes  in 
the  near  future. 


CHAPTER   XLV 

THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  THE  UNITED   STATES 

Literature.  —  Boone,  Education  in  the  United  States;  Williams, 
History  of  Modern  Education;  Barnard,  American  Journal  of  Educa- 
tion ;  Horace  Mann,  Annual  Reports ;  United  States  Commissioner's 
Reports ;  Butler,  Education  in  the  United  States ;  Draper,  American 
Education. 


EACH  state  in  the  United  States  has  its  own  independent 
system  of  education  ;  there  is  no  national  system.  In  1867 
Congress  established  a  National  Bureau  of  Education,  the 
function  of  which  is  "  to  collect  statistics  and  facts  show- 
ing the  condition  and  progress  of  education  in  the  several 
states  and  territories,  and  diffuse  such  information  respect- 
ing the  organization  and  management  of  schools  and  school 
systems  and  methods  of  teaching  as  shall  aid  the  people  of 
the  United  States  in  the  establishment  and  maintenance  of 
efficient  school  systems,  and  otherwise  promote  the  cause 
of  education  throughout  the  country."  The  bureau  issues 
an  annual  report,  which  is  replete  with  information  con- 
cerning the  educational  interests  of  our  own  and  other 
lands. 

The  United  States  government  has  given  vast  tracts  of 
the  public  domain,  as  well  as  large  sums  of  money,  to  the 
various  states,  out  of  which  have  been  created,  in  some 
cases,  large  school  funds  which  yield  a  permanent  income.1 

1  In  1836  there  was  a  large  surplus  in  the  national  treasury,  which,  by 
act  of  Congress,  was  ordered  "  to  be  deposited  with  the  several  states,  in  pro- 
portion to  their  representation  in  Congress."  The  amount  so  distributed 
equaled  about  $30,000,000.  Most  of  the  states  receiving  this  deposit  set  it 
aside  as  a  permanent  school  fund.  See  Boone,  "  History  of  Education  in 
the  United  States,"  p.  91. 


314  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

Up  to  1876  the  United  States  had  granted  nearly  eighty 
million  acres  of  land  for  educational  purposes. 

The  Bureau  of  Education  is  obliged  to  rely  on  such  sta- 
tistics as  its  correspondents  are  willing  to  give,  yet  its 
work  has  been  so  valuable,  its  information  so  extensive 
and  accurate,  and  its  educational  purpose  so  high,  that  cor- 
dial cooperation  is  generally  given.  This  annual  report 
is  the  finest  issued  by  any  nation  in  the  world.1 

THE   STATE   SYSTEMS 

Administration.  —  At  the  head  of  each  state  school  sys- 
tem, there  is  an  executive  officer  usually  called  the  State 
Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction.  He  is  chosen  for 
from  two  to  five  years,  sometimes  by  popular  vote,  some- 
times by  the  joint  houses  of  the  Legislature,  sometimes  by 
the  State  Board  of  Education,  and  in  some  cases  is  ap- 
pointed by  the  governor.  His  duties  are  to  make  reports, 
to  examine  teachers,  to  inspect  schools,  to  distribute  school 
moneys,  to  hear  appeals  in  school  matters,  and  to  have 
general  oversight  of  the  educational  interests  of  the  state. 
In  some  states  there  is  a  State  Board  of  Education  that 
cooperates  with  the  State  Superintendent.  The  interests 
of  education  seem  to  be  best  conserved  when  there  is  a 
non-partisan  State  Board  of  Education,  which  appoints 
the  executive  officers  and  has  general  charge  of  the 
schools. 

The  second  administrative  unit  is  the  county,  over  which 
is  placed  a  Superintendent  of  Schools.  He  is  chosen  by 
popular  vote  or  is  appointed  by  the  State  Board  of  Educa- 
tion, and  holds  office  generally  about  three  years.  He 

1  See  an  article  by  M.  Stevens  on  "  The  National  Bureau  of  Education,"  in 
the  New  York  School  Journal,  Vol.  LVI,  p.  743,  for  a  full  description  of  this 
bureau  and  its  work. 


SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES     3*5 

must  visit  the  schools,  examine  teachers,  hold  institutes, 
distribute  school  moneys,  and  oversee  the  educational 
work.  The  number  of  schools  under  the  inspection  of  the 
county  superintendent  is  often  so  great,  and  the  territory 
so  large,  that  his  work  cannot  be  well  done.  In  many 
cases  the  compensation  is  so  small  that  he  is  obliged  to 
devote  a  part  of  his  time  to  some  other  occupation.  The 
work  is  of  sufficient  importance  to  demand  the  full  time  of 
a  competent  man ;  and  the  salary  ought  to  be  proportion- 
ate to  such  needs. 

The  next  division  is  that  of  the  township,  though  in 
most  states  the  school  district  is  the  next  unit.  The  so- 
called  "  township  system "  has  been  adopted  in  several 
states,  and  recommended  in  others.  This  system  has  a  board 
of  education  which  appoints  teachers,  purchases  supplies, 
and  manages  the  schools  of  the  whole  township.  The  dis- 
trict system  has  outlived  its  usefulness.  It  maintains  more 
schools  than  are  warranted  by  the  small  number  of  pupils. 
Many  of  these  could  be  abandoned  in  favor  of  better 
schools  in  neighboring  districts,  to  which  the  children 
could  be  sent.  It  often  secures  for  its  trustee  a  man  of 
limited  education  and  narrow  views,  who  conducts  the 
school  on  the  cheapest  plan  possible,  while  the  larger  ter- 
ritory of  the  township  furnishes  better  material  from  which 
to  choose ;  it  limits  its  educational  plan  to  the  most  ele- 
mentary course,  whereas  the  "  township  system  "  contem- 
plates a  central  high  school  open  to  all  children  of  the 
township.  The  "  township  system "  also  admits  of  the 
employment  of  a  special  school  inspector  or  superintendent 
if  desired.  In  some  instances,  two  or  more  townships  unite 
in  the  employment  of  such  a  superintendent. 

School  Attendance.  —  The  school  age  commences  at  from 
four  to  six  and  extends  to  from  eighteen  to  twenty-one, 


316  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

varying  greatly  in  the  different  states.  The  United  States 
Commissioner's  Report  now  covers  the  period  of  from  five 
to  eighteen.'  On  this  basis  he  reports  that  71.54  per  cent 
of  the  children  who  are  of  school  age  are  enrolled  in  the 
schools,  while  the  average  attendance  is  about  69  per  cent 
of  the  enrollment.  This  is  a  very  low  percentage  as  com- 
pared with  that  in  Germany,  France,  and  England.  The 
longer  period  covered  by  us  (five  to  eighteen)  thus  acts 
unfavorably.  The  natural  period  of  the  child's  life  to  be 
devoted  to  education  is  from  six  to  fourteen. 

School  attendance  in  the  United  States  is  by  no  means 
so  regular  as  it  should  be,  even  during  the  period  (six  to 
fourteen).  To  remedy  this,  compulsory  education  laws 
have  been  passed  in  most  states.  They  cover  periods 
varying  from  eight  consecutive  weeks  and  a  total  of  twenty 
weeks  during'  the  year,  to  the  full  school  year.  These 
laws  are  generally  a  dead  letter,  partly  because  of  their 
own  weakness,  and  partly  because  of  the  indifference  of 
the  people.  Compulsory  attendance  to  be  effective  must 
cover  the  whole  school  year,  and  must  carry  a  sufficient 
penalty  for  non-enforcement. 

The  Schools.  —  The  schools  of  the  United  States  may 
be  classified  as  follows:  I,  the  elementary  school  having 
an  eight  years'  course  which  should  be  completed  at  four- 
teen ;  2,  the  secondary  school  with  a  four  years'  course  that 
fits  for  college  or  its  equivalent  training;  3,  the  under- 
graduate school  or  college  with  its  four  years'  course ;  and 
the  graduate  school  or  university.  The  elementary  school 
is  generally  separated  into  primary  and  grammar  grades, 
and  is  sometimes  preceded  by  the  kindergarten.  The 
secondary  school  usually  offers  commercial  or  other  prac- 
tical courses  to  those  who  do  not  wish  to  prepare  for 
college.  Colleges  differ  greatly  in  the  scope  of  their  work 


SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES      317 

and  in  their  courses  of  instruction.  Most  universities  open 
their  doors  to  those  who  are  not  graduates  of  colleges. 
In  all  states  the  elementary  and  the  high  schools  are  free, 
while  in  some,  particularly  the  western  states,  the  entire 
expense  of  the  child's  education  from  kindergarten  to 
university  is  defrayed  at  public  expense. 

Support  of  the  Schools.  —  The  annual  cost  of  the  schools 
of  the  country  is  about  four  hundred  and  fifty  million 
dollars.  About  two  thirds  of  this  is  raised  by  local  tax, 
about  one  fifth  by  state  tax,  and  the  balance  is  derived 
chiefly  from  permanent  funds,  etc.  The  preponderance 
of  the  local  tax  shows  that  to  each  community  is  intrusted 
the  important  matter  of  deciding  as  to  the  quality  of  school 
it  will  maintain.  The  American  people  have  always  been 
liberal  toward  education,  and  no  money  is  voted  so  freely 
by  legislative  bodies  as  that  necessary  for  the  education 
of  the  young. 

The  Teachers.  —  There  are  over  540,000  teachers  in  the 
United  States,  of  whom  about  20  per  cent  are  men  and 
80  per  cent  women.  Only  about  10  per  cent  of  these  have 
had  a  professional  training.  The  average  term  of  service 
is  five  years,  and  about  100,000  new  teachers  are  needed 
every  year.  To  supply  this  number  the  normal  schools 
and  other  institutions  for  training  teachers  are  -utterly 
inadequate,  and  will  remain  so  until  the  average  term  of 
service  is  lengthened. 

The  principal  institutions  for  training  teachers  are  the 
normal  school,  the  city  training  school,  the  pedagogical 
departments  of  universities,  and  teachers'  training  classes. 
To  these  may  be  added  the  teachers'  institute  and  the 
summer  school,  which,  while  they  stimulate  and  instruct 
the  teachers,  cannot  be  said  to  give  them  a  professional 
training. 


318  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

The  course  of  the  normal  school  usually  covers  two 
years,  following  a  four-years'  high-school  preparation,  and 
embraces  both  the  theory  of  education  and  practice  in 
teaching  children.  Within  the  last  few  years,  many  col- 
leges have  established  chairs  of  pedagogy,  but  the  work 
remains  inadequate  for  a  professional  training  so  long  as 
practice  in  teaching  is  not  added  to  the  requirements. 

Teachers  are  appointed  by  local  boards  generally  for  one 
year,  though  they  often  remain  undisturbed  year  after  year. 
The  average  monthly  salary  of  men  in  1912  was  $59.49, 
and  of  women  $  54.98. 

So  long  as  professional  training  of  the  teacher  guarantees 
neither  permanence  of  position  nor  adequate  remunera- 
tion, many  men  and  women  with  ability  to  teach  will  be 
tempted  to  devote  their  energies  to  other  work,  leaving 
the  nation's  most  sacred  trust,  the  education  of  its  chil- 
dren, to  those  who  will  not  or  cannot  properly  prepare 
themselves  for  that  great  responsibility.  But  there  is  in 
present  tendencies  no  need  for  discouragement.  Many 
cities  and  states  have  a  fixed  tenure  of  office  for  their 
teachers,  the  salaries  are  slowly  advancing,  and  in  some 
cases  pensions  are  granted  after  a  fixed  term  of  service. 
There  is  every  reason  for  encouragement. 

With  free  schools,  abler  teachers,  consecrated  to  their 
calling,  and  better  courses  of  instruction ;  with  a  people 
generous  in  expenditures  for  educational  purposes,  a  co- 
operation of  parents  and  teachers,  and  a  willingness  to  learn 
from  other  nations  ;  with  the  many  educational  periodicals, 
with  pedagogical  books,  and  teacher's  institutes  to  broaden 
and  stimulate  the  teacher,  —  the  friends  of  education  in 
America  may  labor  on,  assured  that  the  present  century 
will  give  abundant  fruitage  to  the  work  which  has  so  mar- 
velously  orospered  in  the  past. 


CHAPTER   XLVI 

BRIEF   SURVEY  OF  AMERICAN  EDUCATIONAL  HISTORY1 

Literature. — Dexter,  History  of  Education  in  the  United  States; 
Boone,  Education  in  the  United  States ;  Brown,  The  Making  of  our 
Middle  Schools ;  Mann,  Life  and  Works  of  Horace  Mann ;  Mann, 
Annual  Reports  ;  Parker,  History  of  Modern  Elementary  Education  ; 
Reports  of  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education;  Draper, 
American  Education. 

Early  Education.  —  The  early  settlers  of  this  country, 
especially  the  Puritans,  were  men  who  appreciated  the 
value  of  education.  The  Huguenots,  the  Cavaliers,  and 
the  Dutch  settlers,  also,  were  not  wanting  in  appreciation 
of  the  need  of  learning.  Consequently,  one  of  the  first 
things  they  did  was  to  provide  schools  for  their  children. 
Nor  were  they  satisfied,  particularly  in  New  England,  with 
elementary  training  only,  for  in  1635,  only  fifteen  years 
after  the  landing  of  the  Pilgrims,  they  established  the  Bos- 
ton Latin  School,  and  in  1638  Harvard  College  was 
founded.  In  1639,  Dorchester  levied  a  public  tax  for  the 
support  of  a  free  school,  the  first  instance  of  the  kind  in 
this  country,  and  one  of  the  first  to  be  established  any- 
where. A  general  law  covering  the  whole  colony  of  Mas- 
sachusetts followed  in  1647.  This  is  the  beginning  of  the 
system  of  free  education  which  prevails  in  all  the  states  of 
the  Union,  for  which  America  is  justly  proud.  In  this  law 
Massachusetts  enunciates  the  important  principle  of  the 
joint  obligation  of  the  family  and  the  state  to  provide  edu- 
cation for  the  young. 

1  NOTE.  —  It  would  seem  logical  that  this  discussion  should  precede  the 
study  of  our  present  school  system.  Inasmuch,  however,  as  I  have  under- 
taken to  compare  the  school  systems  of  Germany,  France,  England,  and  the 
United  States,  following  the  same  plan  in  the  treatment  of  each  system,  I 
deem  it  wiser  to  discuss  the  four  countries  successively. 

319 


320  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

The  church  for  centuries  had  assumed  the  task  of  pro- 
viding schools.  But  already  in  the  old  country  the  state 
had  begun  to  take  upon  itself  this  work.  It  was  recog- 
nized that  the  church  had  neither  the  means  nor  the 
authority  to  secure  universal  education.  The  church  could 
never  undertake  the  education  of  the  masses,  however 
zealous  she  might  be.  And  yet,  as  the  means  of  human 
intercourse  became  more  elastic,  and  as  the  people  acquired 
larger  freedom,  universal  education  became  imperative  and 
the  only  agency  that  could  undertake  and  successfully 
carry  it  out  was  the  state.  The  early  colonists  recognized 
that  the  safety  of  a  free  government  must  rest  upon  the 
intelligence  and  moral  character  of  the  mass  of  the  peo- 
ple. Hence  provision  must  be  made  for  the  education  of 
all  in  the  new  land  to  which  they  had  so  recently  come 
seeking  equal  rights  and  greater  freedom. 

The  Law  of  1647. — The  act  of  1647  recognized  three 
grades  of  schools,  elementary,  secondary,  and  higher,  plac- 
ing all  under  control  of  the  state,  although  few  of  the 
original  colonies  have  incorporated  higher  education  in 
their  systems  at  state  expense,  being  content  with  main- 
taining elementary  and  secondary  schools,  and  leaving 
higher  education  to  private  enterprise  which  was  largely 
under  the  control  of  some  religious  body.  But  all  of  the 
new  states  of  the  middle  and  far  west  have  adopted  a 
complete  system  of  education  from  the  beginning  of  the 
primary  school  to  the  completion  of  the  university  free  to 
all  within  their  borders. 

Under  the  above  act  it  was  ordered  that,  "  It  being  one 
chief  project  of  that  old  deluder,  Satan,  to  keep  men  from 
the  knowledge  of  the  Scriptures,  as,  in  former  times,  keep- 
ing them  in  an  unknown  tongue,  so  in  these  later  times, 
by  persuading  from  the  use  of  tongues ;  so  that  at  last  the 


SURVEY  OF  AMERICAN  EDUCATIONAL  HISTORY    321 

true  sense  and  meaning  of  the  original  might  be  clouded 
and  corrupted  with  false  glosses  of  deceivers ;  and  to  the 
end  that  learning  may  not  be  buried  in  the  graves  of  our 
forefathers,  in  church  and  commonwealth,  the  Lord  assist- 
ing our  endeavors :  It  is  therefore  ordered  by  this  Court 
and  authority  thereof  that  every  township  within  this  juris- 
diction, after  the  Lord  hath  increased  them  to  the  number 
of  fifty  householders,  shall  then  forthwith  appoint  one 
within  their  town  to  teach  all  such  children  as  shall  resort 
to  him,  to  write  and  read  ;  whose  wages  shall  be  paid, 
either  by  the  parents  or  masters  of  such  children,  or  by 
the  inhabitants  in  general,  by  way  of  supply,  as  the  major 
part  of  those  who  order  the  prudentials  of  the  town  shall 
appoint ;  provided  that  those  who  send  their  children  be 
not  oppressed  by  paying  much  more  than  they  can  have 
them  taught  for  in  the  adjoining  towns. 

"  And  it  is  further  ordered  that  where  any  town  shall 
increase  to  the  number  of  one  hundred  families  or  house- 
holders, they  shall  set  up  a  grammar  school,  the  master 
thereof  being  able  to  instruct  youths  so  far  that  they  may 
be  fitted  for  the  university ;  and  if  any  town  neglect  the 
performance  hereof,  above  one  year,  then  every  such  town 
shall  pay  five  pounds  per  annum  to  the  next  such  school, 
till  they  shall  perform  this  order." 

This,  it  will  be  seen,  is  a  definite  recognition  on  the  part  of 
the  state  of  its  duty  to  maintain  schools  when  the  conditions 
warranted  it.  It  does  not  provide  that  the  schools  should 
be  free,  it  being  left  to  each  community  to  decide  upon  the 
means  of  support.  No  child  was  debarred  from  school  on 
account  of  tuition  fees,  as  it  was  provided  that  moneys  from 
the  church  or  town  funds  should  be  applied  in  case  a 
parent  was  too  poor  to  pay.  The  support  of  schools 
wholly  by  public  taxation  was  a  later  development. 

HIST.   OF  ED.  —  21 


322  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

The  District  System.  —  It  was  quite  natural  in  the  early 
colonial  days  that  the  primary  unit  of  school  administra- 
tion should  be  the  district  with  a  single  school  as  a  center 
and  with  a  board  of  trustees  to  direct  each  school.  The 
country  was  sparsely  settled  and  when  a  sufficient  number 
of  families  could  be  grouped  together,  a  school  was  estab- 
lished, trustees  were  chosen,  and  a  teacher  employed.  There 
was  no  unity  of  interest  between  different  schools,  and  no 
supervision  except  such  as  was  implied  in  the  above  law. 

Many  of  the  practices  in  Massachusetts  were  adopted, 
not  only  in  the  other  New  England  colonies,  but  also  in 
all  of  the  later  States  throughout  the  Union,  the  most 
marked  example  of  such  imitation  being  the  school  district. 
Massachusetts  has  now  adopted  the  township  as  the  primary 
unit  of  school  administration  and  a  number  of  the  other 
States  have  followed  her  example,  though  most  of  them 
still  cling  to  the  district  system. 

The  township  system  is  preferable  to  the  district  as  a 
unit  because  it  has  a  broader  field  from  which  to  choose 
the  school  board;  it  can  better  adjust  and  control  school 
attendance ;  it  can  more  wisely  determine  where  schools 
shall  be  located  and  when  to  abandon  schools  that  have 
too  few  pupils ;  it  can  establish  a  central  high  school 
which  might  be  impossible  in  a  single  district ;  it  can  make 
a  better  distribution  of  teachers  ;  it  can  provide  for  ade- 
quate supervision ;  it  can  fix  a  uniform  course  of  study ; 
and  it  can  work  economies  through  the  adjustment  of 
teachers  and  through  the  purchase  of  textbooks  and  sup- 
plies. There  is  no  doubt  that  the  township  system  will 
supplant  the  district  in  most  of  the  Northern  States  in  time. 

The  County  System.  —  In  most  of  the  Southern  States, 
which  never  felt  the  influence  of  New  England,  and  which 
had  no  common  school  system  until  after  the  Civil  War, 


SURVEY  OF  AMERICAN  EDUCATIONAL  HISTORY    323 

the  unit  of  administration  is  the  county  as  a  whole.  This 
plan  works  very  well  in  the  South,  which  is  thinly  popu- 
lated, but  it  would  not  be  suited  to  a  community  with  a 
large  population.  Under  this  system  a  board  of  education 
exercises  control  over  the  educational  interests  of  the 
county,  appointing  the  teachers,  making  the  course  of 
study,  and  attending  to  the  material  affairs. 

The  Horn  Book.  —  Textbooks  were  very  scarce  in  the 
early  schools  and  very  poor  from  the  standpoint  of  modern 
ideals.  Accordingly  an  important  instrument  in  common 
use  in  the  schools  was  the  horn  book.  It  consists  of  a 
single  page  of  printed  matter,  such  as  the  alphabet,  the 
numerals,  etc.  Sometimes  the  whole  of  the  Lord's  Prayer, 
or  the  Apostles'  Creed,  or  parts  of  the  catechism  were  in- 
cluded on  the  page.  This  was  pasted  upon  a  thin  board, 
which  terminated  in  a  handle,  the  material  being  covered 
with  thin  transparent  horn  to  protect  it  from  being  soiled 
and  to  preserve  it.  There  was  a  hole  through  the  handle 
for  a  string  by  which  the  apparatus  could  be  hung  up  or 
attached  to  the  girdle.  Cowper  describes  it  in  verse : 

"  Neatly  secured  from  being  soiled  or  torn 
Beneath  a  pane  of  thin  translucent  horn, 
A  book  (to  please  us  at  a  tender  age 
Tis  called  a  book,  though  but  a  single  page), 
Presents  the  prayer  the  Saviour  deign'd  to  teach, 
Which  children  use,  and  parsons,  — when  they  preach." 

Locke  alluded  to  the  horn  book  as  the  "  ordinary  road  "  to 
learning  in  his  time.  In  the  absence  of  textbooks  no 
doubt  this  little  instrument  served  a  very  good  purpose 
both  in  Old  and  New  England.  Later  the  "  New  England 
Primer,"  published  during  the  seventeenth  century,  sup- 
planted the  horn  book,  and  other  books  for  the  elementary 
school  followed  as  printing  became  more  universal. 


324  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

Higher  Education.  —  The  New  England  colonists  were 
Englishmen  and  it  was  therefore  natural  that  they  should 
cling  to  the  institutions  under  which  they  had  been  reared. 
Accordingly  the  "  grammar  "  school,  which  is  the  school 
principally  for  the  middle  classes  of  England,  was  intro- 
duced into  New  England.  This  school  is  not  to  be  con-- 
founded  with  the  modern  American  grammar  school.  It 
was  intended  to  fit  for  college,  the  classic  languages  form- 
ing the  basis  of  instruction.  These  schools  were  supported 
by  private  subscriptions,  endowments,  and  tuition  fees,  and 
later  in  part  by  public  taxation.  They  anteceded  the  col- 
leges, especially  Harvard,  William  and  Mary,  Yale,  Prince- 
ton, and  the  University  of  Pennsylvania.  They  not  only 
fitted  for  college,  but  also  supplemented  the  meager  course 
of  the  common  schools.  Boone  says :  "  They  were  the 
only  preparatory  schools  of  the  time  and  of  uniform  type, 
their  courses  being  fitted  to  the  time-sanctioned  curriculum 
of  the  college.  They  taught  much  Latin  and  Greek,  an 
extended  course  in  mathematics,  and  were  strong  generally 
on  the  side  of  the  humanities  as  these  were  understood. 
Theirs  was  an  eminent  service,  making  the  severe  training 
of  the  college  possible." 

Academies.  —  From  Dexter  we  read  :  "  As  the  grammar 
schools  throughout  the  early  colonies  declined  in  efficiency 
toward  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century,  a  new  in- 
stitution was  coming  to  the  front,  and  providing  a  means 
of  education  that  was  far  reaching.  This  was  the  academy, 
the  successor  of  the  old  grammar  school,  and  the  fore- 
runner of  the  modern  high  school.  From  the  time  of  the 
Revolution,  until  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century,  it 
was  the  undisputed  leader  in  secondary  education ;  and 
although  in  a  sense  deposed  by  the  public  high  school,  the 
academy  has  not  by  any  means  outlived  its  usefulness." 


SURVEY  OF  AMERICAN'  EDUCATIONAL  HISTORY    $2$ 

The  first  to  be  incorporated  was  founded  by  Franklin  in 
Philadelphia  in  1753.  These  institutions  were  established 
throughout  New  England,  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  and 
other  States.  They  were  private  institutions,  generally 
endowed  and  sometimes  recognized  and  partly  supported 
by  the  State.  They  multiplied  rapidly  and  filled  a  decided 
educational  want.  There  are  still  many  in  existence  which 
find  support  from  ample  endowments  and  from  parents 
who  prefer  the  training  and  influence  of  the  private  school. 

The  High  School.  —  By  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth 
century  most  States  had  adopted  public  school  systems  in 
which  tuition  was  absolutely  free.  The  transition  had 
been  gradual.  At  first  tuition  was  charged  according  to 
the  number  of  days'  attendance,  thus  putting  the  burden 
of  maintaining  heaviest  upon  parents  having  large  fam- 
ilies, where  very  often  it  could  least  be  borne,  and  thus 
encouraging  nonattendance.  Later  the  State  recognized 
its  duty  to  protect  itself  by  providing  for  general  education 
at  public  cost,  for  no  free  government  can  long  survive 
that  does  not  have  an  intelligent  citizenship.  The  next 
step  was  to  provide  State  aid  to  partially  bear  the  burden, 
a  small  tuition  being  charged  to  cover  the  balance.  Fi- 
nally, the  State  assumed  the  entire  cost  of  maintaining 
public  schools,  making  them  absolutely  free.  It  could 
then  consistently  compel  attendance,  for,  education  being 
necessary  for  its  stability  and  perpetuity,  and  the  schools 
being  free,  the  State  could  demand  that  the  children  should 
avail  themselves  of  its  benefits.  The  taxpayer  may  well 
demand  that,  inasmuch  as  he  must  pay  for  the  support  of 
the  schools,  the  children  should  be  required  to  attend  them. 
Most  States  have  enacted  compulsory  attendance  laws; 
few,  however,  have  made  them  efficient. 

While  it  came  to  be  generally  recognized  that  elemen- 


326  HISTORY  OF  EDI/CATION 

tary  education  is  the  function  of  the  State,  many  questioned 
the  right  of  adding  the  high  school  to  the  educational 
scheme  and  making  it  a  public  burden.  Upon  this  point 
Dexter  says :  "  Many  argued  that  the  common  school 
funds  could  not  be  applied  legally  to  the  support  of  higher 
education.  In  some  States  the  controversy  was  spirited. 
But  social  and  economic  conditions  were  rapidly  changing. 
The  head  of  the  family  was  receiving  higher  wages  ;  and, 
as  a  consequence,  the  boys  and  girls  were  not  forced  into 
the  ranks  of  producers  at  so  early  an  age  as  formerly. 
This  meant  a  longer  school  period,  and  the  educational 
machinery  was  quick  to  adapt  itself  to  the  new  conditions. 
The  result  was  the  public  high  school." 

In  1853  New  York  passed  a  law  permitting  the  forma- 
tion of  union  free  schools.  Many  of  these  schools  ab- 
sorbed the  old  academies  which  could  not  compete  with 
free  schools  that  offered  the  advantages  of  secondary  edu- 
cation. Most  of  these  union  schools  have  grown  into  high 
schools.  Opposition  to  the  support  of  higher  education 
from  the  public  treasury  has  gradually  disappeared  until 
practically  all  the  states  of  the  Union  are  maintaining  public 
high  schools  as  a  necessary  part  of  their  educational  sys- 
tem. Indeed,  many  of  the  states,  especially  the  newer 
states  of  the  West,  which  have  large  school  funds,  are  fur- 
nishing free  education  till  the  end  of  the  university  course. 

The  existence  of  the  high  school  as  a  part  of  the  scheme 
of  public  education  is  doubly  justified  by  its  enlarged  pur- 
pose. It  is  no  longer  merely  a  preparatory  school  for 
college;  it  seeks  itself  to  be  a  "  people's  college,"  aiming  to 
complete  courses  that  will  prepare  its  students  to  enter 
upon  larger  usefulness,  to  be  more  efficient,  to  be  able  to 
meet  the  increased  demands  of  social,  industrial,  civic, 
aesthetic,  ethical,  and  practical  life. 


SURVEY  OF  AMERICAN  EDUCATIONAL  HISTORY    327 

The  growth  of  high  schools  has  been  most  remarkable. 
The  total  number  of  high  schools,  public  and  private,  in 
1890  was  4158  with  297,894  students.  In  1912  there  were 
13,268  high  schools  with  1,246,827  students,  an  increase  in 
twenty-two  years  of  over  300  per  cent  in  the  number  of 
schools,  and  over  400  per  cent  in  the  number  of  students. 

Colleges  and  Universities.  —  The  oldest  of  these  institu- 
tions is  Harvard  (1638),  followed  by  William  and  Mary 
(1693),  Yale  (1701),  Princeton  (1746),  Columbia  (1754), 
Brown  (1764).  All  of  the  older  institutions  were  founded 
by  private  initiative  or  by  the  influence  and  support  of 
some  religious  denomination.  Most  of  the  states  now  have 
a  state  university.  North  Carolina  took  the  lead  in  this 
movement  by  inserting  a  clause  in  its  constitution  in  1766 
which  reads,  "  All  useful  learning  shall  be  encouraged  and 
promoted  in  one  or  more  universities."  Dexter  tells  us 
that,  "  As  the  vast  territory  of  the  Middle  West  was  opened 
up,  and  constitution  after  constitution  framed,  the  same 
wise  provision  for  carrying  the  public  education  of  the 
youth  to  the  highest  step  was  made.  And  it  is  here  that 
the  State  university  has  reached  its  fullest  development." 
He  further  adds,  "  With  the  exception  of  Maine,  which 
formed  its  university  in  1867,  no  state  north  and  east  of  the 
Old  Dominion  has  found  a  place  for  a  state  university." 

In  1862  Congress  provided  for  a  grant  to  the  states  of 
30,000  acres  of  public  lands  for  each  senator  and  repre- 
sentative in  Congress,  the  proceeds  of  which  have  furnished 
the  foundation  of  many  State  universities.  Previous  to 
1848  every  new  state  admitted  into  the  Union  set  apart  the 
sixteenth  section  of  every  township  for  educational  purposes, 
and  since  that  time  the  thirty-sixth  section  was  also  set 
apart,  thus  devoting  one  eighteenth  of  all  territory  of  the 
new  states  to  the  maintenance  of  the  public  schools.  The 


328  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

United  States  government  has  given  nearly  80,000,000  acres 
of  land  for  educational  purposes,  —  a  territory  larger  than 
the  combined  areas  of  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  and  all  New 
England,  excepting  Maine.  Many  of  the  states,  therefore, 
have  magnificent  school  funds,  that  of  Texas  being  over 
$50,000,000,  Minnesota,  $39,000,000,  Illinois,  $20,000,000. 
Normal  Schools.  —  Horace  Mann  recognized  the  necessity 
of  trained  teachers  and  it  was  largely  through  his  efforts 
that  the  first  normal  schools  were  established.  The  first 
normal  school  in  this  country  was  opened  in  Lexington, 
Mass.,  in  1839,  an^  another  was  opened  at  Barre,  Mass.,  a 
few  months  later.  The  work  in  the  early  normal  schools 
was  largely  academic,  owing  to  the  meager  preparation  of 
the  students  who  came  to  them.  As  high  schools  have 
become  more  general  and  more  efficient,  the  academic  prep- 
aration is  left  largely  to  them,  and  the  normal  school 
courses  have  become  mostly  professional.  In  the  best 
normal  schools  a  full  four-year  high  school  preparation  is 
now  required,  though  many  schools  have  not  yet  reached 
this  standard.  Advanced  academic  and  professional  work 
has  become  necessary  in  order  to  meet  the  ever  increasing 
demand  for  a  higher  grade  of  teachers.  Some  normal 
schools  offer  a  full  four  years'  course  of  instruction,  while 
most  of  the  colleges  and  universities  offer  pedagogical 
courses.  There  are  also  teachers'  colleges  which  devote 
their  whole  time  to  the  study  of  the  science  and  art  of 
teaching.  Every  state  in  the  Union,  excepting  Delaware, 
has  at  least  one  normal  school.  There  are  222  public,  and 
55  private  normal  schools,  97,104  students  in  the  former 
and  6510  in  the  latter,  the  total  number  of  graduates  in 
both  being  less  than  20,000.  As  nearly  100,000  new 
teachers  are  needed  every  year,  it  will  readily  appear  that 
the  facilities  for  training  them  are  wholly  inadequate. 


CHAPTER   XLVII 

RECENT  EDUCATIONAL   MOVEMENTS 

Literature.  —  Proceedings  of  the  National  Education  Society ;  Re- 
ports of  the  Commissioner  of  Education ;  Yearbooks  of  the  National 
Society  for  the  Scientific  Study  of  Education  ;  Parker  Memorial  Num- 
ber of  the  New  York  School  Journal,  April  5,  1902  ;  Moniessorz,  The 
Montessori  Method. 

IN  order  to  bring  the  history  of  education  down  to  the 
present  and  awaken  an  interest  in  questions  that  are  now 
occupying  the  attention  of  educational  thinkers,  a  brief 
study  of  recent  educational  movements,  theories,  and  or- 
ganizations is  here  presented.  Such  study  should  serve  as 
an  introduction  of  the  young  teacher  to  the  actual  world  of 
thought,  in  which  he  is  to  live,  and  present  to  him  the 
questions  which  he  must  aid  in  solving. 

The  National  Education  Association.  —  One  of  the  most 
potent  factors  of  education  in  the  United  States  is  the  Na- 
tional Education  Association,  founded  in  Philadelphia  in 
1857.  The  purpose  of  this  organization,  in  the  language 
of  the  preamble  to  its  constitution,  is,  "To  elevate  the 
character  and  advance  the  interests  of  the  profession  of 
teaching,  and  to  promote  the  cause  of  popular  education 
in  the  United  States."  It  holds  its  meetings  annually  in 
different  parts  of  the  "country,  attracting  large  numbers  of 
teachers  of  all  ranks  and  from  every  section.1  There  are 
eighteen  departments,  each  of  which  holds  special  sessions 
during  the  time  of  the  general  meeting,  which  occurs  early 

1The  membership  at  the  Boston  meeting  in  1903  was  34,984.  This,  how- 
ever, is  far  in  excess  of  the  average  attendance. 

329 


330  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

in  the  summer  vacation.  The  department  of  superintend- 
ence, however,  holds  a  midwinter  meeting  which  attracts 
the  leading  educators  of  the  country. 

Very  valuable  service  has  been  rendered  by  the  Associ- 
ation through  its  committees  that  have  been  appointed 
from  time  to  time  to  investigate  and  report  upon  special 
problems.  Among  the  notable  reports  may  be  mentioned 
the  following:  Report  of  the  Committee  of  Ten  on  Sec- 
ondary Schools ;  Report  of  the  Committee  of  Fifteen  on 
Elementary  Schools  ;  Report  of  the  Committee  on  Normal 
Schools  ;  Report  of  the  Committee  on  Rural  Schools. 

The  discussions  of  the  Association  are  preserved  in  an 
annual  volume  of  proceedings.  Its  committee  reports  often 
appear  also  in  special  bulletins.  It  must  be  admitted  in 
general  that  the  National  Education  Association  fulfills 
its  mission,  as  outlined  in  the  preamble  quoted,  in  an  admi- 
rable way. 

THE  NATIONAL  BUREAU  OF  EDUCATION 

While  the  United  States  has  no  national  system  of  edu- 
cation, each  state  having  entire  charge  of  its  own  educa- 
tional affairs,  there  is  a  national  bureau  whose  office  is 
twofold  ;  namely  :  (i)  to  collect  statistics,  and  (2)  to  diffuse 
information  concerning  educational  affairs.  This  bureau 
was  established  by  Congress  in  1867,  and  since  1869  it  has 
been  a  bureau  of  .the  Department  of  the  Interior.  Henry 
Barnard  was  appointed  the  first  commissioner,  and  he  has 
been  succeeded  in  that  office  by  John  Eaton,  N.  H.  R. 
Dawson,  William  T.  Harris,  Elmer  E.  Brown,  and  P.  P. 
Claxton,  the  present  incumbent. 

This  bureau  fosters  the  interests  of  education  in  three 
important  directions:  (i)  by  its  publications;  (2)  by  its 
maintenance  of  a  pedagogical  library,  the  most  extensive 


RECENT  EDUCATIONAL  MOVEMENTS  331 

in  the  country ;  and  (3)  by  its  pedagogical  museum,  in 
which  every  feature  of  educational  enterprise  is  exhibited. 

The  most  valuable  service  rendered,  however,  is  through 
its  publications.  It  issues  an  annual  report  which  has 
grown  to  two  large  volumes  of  more  than  twenty-four 
hundred  pages,  in  which  are  found  statistics  concerning  all 
kinds  of  schools  and  educational  enterprises  throughout  the 
United  States.  Nor  are  its  investigations  limited  to  our 
own  country  and  its  territories.  Educational  movements 
in  other  countries  are  described  from  time  to  time  by  ex- 
perts with  a  view  to  furnish  complete  information  con- 
cerning current  educational  history  throughout  the  world. 
These  reports  are  recognized  as  by  far  the  best  furnished 
by  any  country  in  the  world. 

In  addition  to  the  annual  report  the  bureau  issues  many 
pamphlets  bearing  upon  special  topics  and  furnishing  val- 
uable information. 

In  view  of  the  fact  that  such  vast  interests  are  involved, 
—  the  instruction  of  over  twenty  million  pupils,  requiring 
the  service  of  more  than  half  a  million  teachers,  involving 
the  expenditure  of  nearly  five  hundred  million  dollars  per 
annum,  and  of  vital  interest  to  the  whole  population,  — 
many  educators  believe  that  the  bureau  should  be  elevated 
to  the  dignity  of  a  department  of  the  government  with  a 
cabinet  officer  at  its  head. 

THE  QUINCY   MOVEMENT 

In  1873  the  School  Board  of  Quincy,  Massachusetts, 
took  a  new  and  very  important  departure,  namely,  that  of 
calling  an  educational  expert  to  take  charge  of  their  schools. 
They  realized  that  the  office  of  a  school  board  is  to  admin- 
ister t.he  external  matters,  but  trained  experts  should  have 
entire  direction  of  the  internal  affairs  of  the  schools,  such 


332  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

as  discipline,  methods  of  instruction,  course  of  study,  etc. 
They  called  Colonel  Francis  W.  Parker  (1837-1902)  to  the 
superintendency,  and  said  to  him  practically :  "  We  will 
furnish  the  equipment  and  the  teachers,  and  it  is  your  busi- 
ness to  run  the  schools.  We  will  not  interfere  with  your 
methods  or  your  plans,  but  will  hold  you  responsible  for 
results."  Colonel  Parker,  who  had  just  returned  from  a 
careful  study  of  European  schools,  accepted  this  responsi- 
bility and  at  once  began  reforms  in  primary  education  not 
second  in  importance  to  those  of  Horace  Mann  a  genera- 
tion earlier.  The  "  New  Education  "  and  "  Quincy  Meth- 
ods" began  to  be  discussed  everywhere,  and  Quincy  be- 
came the  educational  Mecca  for  teachers  from  every  part 
of  the  land.  Some  of  the  reforms  inaugurated  were  the 
following :  Text-books  were  abolished,  the  learning  of  the 
alphabet  discontinued,  mere,  memorizing  of  facts  discoun- 
tenanced, nature  work  was  emphasized,  concrete  meth- 
ods employed,  and  all  school  work  made  natural  and 
interesting.  The  results  in  comparison  with  those  of  other 
schools  were  phenomenal,  and  it  was  recognized  that  a 
great  reform  movement  had  been  started. 

Doubtless,  like  reformers  generally,  Colonel  Parker  was 
too  extreme.  Some  of  his  innovations  were  later  modified, 
even  by  the  originator  himself.  Nevertheless,  the  Quincy 
Movement  did  incalculable  good  by  breaking  up  the  for- 
malism that  prevailed,  by  making  the  work  practical  and  in- 
teresting, by  offering  suitable  material,  by  improving  the 
methods  of  instruction,  and  by  awakening  great  interest 
in  educational  problems  among  both  the  teachers  and  the 
public  at  large.  For  this  great  work  at  Quincy,  for  his  many 
years'  service  as  the  head  of  the  Chicago  Normal  School, 
and  for  his  stimulating  influence  upon  elementary  education 
throughout  the  country,  Colonel  Parker  deserves  a  place 


RECENT  EDUCATIONAL  MOVEMENTS  333 

among  the  foremost  educators  of  recent  times.  The  exam- 
ple of  the  Quincy  School  Board  in  placing  an  educational 
expert  over  their  schools  has  been  followed  by  many  cities. 
The  office  of  city  superintendent  has  been  created,  and  to 
him  is  now  committed  duties  that  formerly  were  undertaken 
by  members  of  the  School  Board  who  were  without  profes- 
sional training.  This  change  marks  a  decided  step  forward 
in  the  educational  progress  of  our  country. 

THE   HERBARTIAN    MOVEMENT 

One  of  the  most  important  educational  movements  of 
recent  years,  is  that  inaugurated  by  the  disciples  of  Her- 
bart l  in  this  country.  At  the  meeting  of  the  New  Eng- 
land Association  in  Denver  in  1895  a  number  of  men,  most 
of  whom  had  studied  under  Stoy  and  Rein  in  Germany, 
formed  the  National  Herbart  Society,  whose  purpose  was 
declared  to  be  "the  aggressive  discussion  and  spread  of 
educational  doctrines."  This  society  was  the  outgrowth  of 
the  Herbart  Club,  formed  three  years  before  at  Saratoga. 
It  is  now  known  as  the  National  Society  for  the  Scientific 
Study  of  Education.  It  holds  semiannual  meetings  in  con- 
nection with  the  National  Educational  Association,  but  is 
not  a  department  of  said  Association.  It  issues  "Year- 
books "  which  contain  the  results  of  the  investigations  of 
its  members  and  which  are  valuable  contributions  to  current 
educational  literature. 

Among  the  most  important  educational  theories  brought 
forward  by  this  school  may  be  mentioned  that  of  Appercep- 
tion, the  Doctrine  of  Interest,  the  Correlation  of  Studies, 
Concentration,  the  Culture  Epoch  Theory,  and  Character 
Building  as  an  end  of  education.  The  practical  application 
of  these  theories  to  school  problems  has  not  been  neglected. 

1  See  p.  282. 


334  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

There  is  no  doubt  that  the  Herbartian  teachings  have 
served  to  bring  education  in  this  country  to  a  scientific 
basis.  The  members  of  this  society  have  been  among  the 
foremost  contributors  to  the  pedagogical  literature  of  the 
last  two  decades. 

VARIOUS  TENDENCIES 

Child  Study.  —  The  old  psychologists  based  their  theories 
and  deductions  upon  a  study  of  the  activities  of  the  adult 
mind.  Modern  educators  have  turned  their  attention  to 
the  being  whom  they  are  to  educate  —  the  child.  Ques- 
tionaires  have  been  issued  and  syllabi  formulated  concern- 
ing many  characteristics  of  children,  such  as  their  fears, 
their  imaginations,  their  lies,  their  views  of  God,  etc.,  for 
the  purpose  of  discovering  laws  governing  the  same. 
While  as  yet  the  movement  cannot  claim  to  have  added 
much  to  educational  theory,  it  has  stimulated  careful  study 
and  observation  of  children,  brought  teachers  into  more 
genuine  sympathy  with  them,  suggested  suitable  material 
for  instruction,  and  fostered  rational  discipline.  It  offers 
an  unlimited  and  fruitful  field  for  further  investigation. 

Parents'  Meetings.  —  In  the  early  history  of  the  race 
parents  assumed  the  entire  education  of  their  offspring. 
When  schools  became  numerous  and  teachers  efficient, 
parents  largely  absolved  themselves  from  direct  responsi- 
bility in  the  matter  of  education.  To  arouse  proper  inter- 
est and  to  unite  all  the  agencies  of  the  community  in  this 
work,  parents'  meetings  have  been  organized  in  many 
places.  Thus  the  patrons  of  the  school  have  not  only 
been  led  to  cooperate  with  their  teachers,  but  also  to  study 
educational  problems.  Such  organizations  have  strength- 
ened the  hands  of  the  teachers,  stimulated  educational 
interest,  and  aroused  a  genuine  and  intelligent  pride  in 
the  work  of  the  school. 


RECENT  EDUCATIONAL   MOVEMENTS  335 

Manual  and  Industrial  Training.  —  The  marvelous  indus- 
trial development  of  recent  years,  together  with  the  atti- 
tude of  labor  unions  towards  apprenticeships,  creates  a 
demand  for  a  reconstruction  of  courses  of  study.  Much 
of  education  that  was  secured  in  the  shop  and  field  must 
now  be  furnished  in  the  school.  "  Educate  the  whole 
child  "  is  the  watchword.  The  motor  activities  must  be 
trained  as  well  as  the  mental  activities.  Indeed,  the  latter 
cannot  attain  their  proper  development  without  the  for- 
mer. Hence,  manual  training  has  been  adopted  as  a  part 
of  the  curriculum,  and  schools  everywhere  are  introducing 
various  forms  of  industrial  training,  not  for  the  purpose  of 
teaching  special  trades  or  occupations,  but  as  a  means  of 
general  education.  It  is  being  recognized  more  and  more 
that  many  children  are  not  "  book  minded,"  hence  the 
ordinary  school  course  fails  to  reach  them.  Moreover,  it 
has  been  found  that  even  with  ordinary  children  the  intro- 
duction of  handiwork  serves  to  stimulate  their  intellectual 
powers,  while  it  furnishes  most  valuable  lessons  that  are 
of  practical  utility  to  every  person  regardless  of  what 
their  occupation  in  life  may  be. 

Agriculture.  —  The  study  of  agriculture  also  has  as- 
sumed an  important  place  in  many  curricula.  It  is  gener- 
ally recognized  that  the  weakest  place  in  our  educational 
system  is  the  rural  school.  Poor  salaries  have  naturally 
attracted  poor  teachers.  But  the  course  of  study  offered 
in  these  schools  has  not  been  of  the  nature  to  meet  the 
wants  of  the  country  child.  It  has  followed,  in  general, 
the  course  of  the  city  or  town.  By  far  the  greatest  num- 
ber of  the  people  of  this  country  gain  their  livelihood  on 
the  farm.  And  yet,  there  has  been  little  effort  to  give  the 
children  of  the  farming  districts  a  knowledge  of  the  things 
that  are  of  the  most  vital  interest  to  them.  Hence  many 


336  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

boys  abandon  the  farm  and  overcrowd  the  cities,  seeking 
employment  in  occupations  for  which  their  common  school 
course  has  better  fitted  them  than  it  has  fitted  them  for 
farm  life. 

Davenport,1  in  speaking  of  our  first  attempts  at  universal 
education,  says :  "  Children  of  farmers  and  mechanics 
flocked  to  school,  but  the  course  of  study  was  adapted  to 
the  so-called  learned  professions.  It  was  not  only  silent 
about  the  great  industries  of  life,  but  the  influence  exerted 
upon  the  young  was  to  fire  them  with  an  ambition  to  'rise 
in  the  world,'  whatever  that  may  be."  He  further  adds, 
"  The  farm  boy  who  had  much  contact  with  the  schools 
seldom  .returned  to  the  farm,  but  hied  him  to  the  city, 
where  he  was  welcome  for  his  habits  of  thrifty  industry, 
whether  he  ever  rose  or  whether  he  ground  his  life  out  in 
a  cheap  clerkship.  This  stripping  of  the  land  and  the 
country  of  its  brightest  and  best,  its  most  ambitious  and 
promising  young,  went  on  until  a  general  state  of  public 
alarm  ensued  as  to  the  consequences  of  such  a  system  of 
one  sided  education  when  applied  to  all  the  people,  for  the 
evident  effect  was  to  strip  the  useful  industries  and  occu- 
pations of  the  choicest  young  men  and  pile  them  up  in  a 
few  favored  callings  where  many  of  them  were  not  needed 
nor  wanted." 

The  course  of  study  has  taken  but  little  account  of  the 
needs  of  90  per  cent  of  the  children  of  the  rural  dis- 
tricts and  of  the  children  of  the  towns  as  to  their  industrial 
training.  In  the  country  the  dominant  thought  of  the 
community  is  agriculture  and  the  school  should  seek  to 
create  a  respect  for  it  by  making  a  scientific  and  practical 
study  of  its  problems.  In  many  sections  of  the  country 
this  is  being  attempted,  not  only  by  introducing  courses  in 

1  "  Education  for  Efficiency." 


RECENT  EDUCATIONAL  MOVEMENTS  337 

agriculture  in  the  universities  and  high  schools,  but  also 
by  a  study  of  some  of  the  simpler  problems  of  farming  in 
the  elementary  school.  Some  schools  have  a  school  farm 
upon  which  the  children  work,  experimenting  with  crops, 
studying  fertilizers  and  seeds,  testing  milk,  learning  about 
insects,  animals,  and  plants,  and  about  the  care  of  poultry, 
etc.  This  work  is  not  only  of  intense  interest  to  the  chil- 
dren, but  it  also  carries  its  valuable  lessons  to  parents, 
increases  the  yield  of  crops,  and  thereby  adds  to  the 
wealth  of  the  community.  This  movement  is  destined  to 
a  far  wider  recognition,  and  its  influence  will  be  felt  in 
making  country  life  more  attractive,  and  thereby  checking 
the  exodus  from  the  farm  to  the  city. 

Continuation  Schools.  —  Fully  90  per  cent  of  the  chil- 
dren never  attend  school  beyond  the  elementary  course. 
The  general  belief  is  that  this  does  not  suffice  as  a  prep- 
aration for  the  demands  of  modern  life.  In  some  states 
the  period  of  compulsory  attendance  has  been  extended  to 
sixteen  years  and  in  some  cases  to  seventeen,  unless  the 
child  is  employed.  Even  for  those  employed,  provision  is 
made  for  their  further  schooling  in  continuation  schools, 
held  often  at  night  so  as  not  to  interfere  with  their  occu- 
pation. Courses  are  offered  intended  to  continue  their 
elementary  training  and  also  to  extend  their  knowledge 
into  new  fields,  particularly  those  that  will  have  a  direct 
bearing  upon  their  future  occupation.  These  schools  have 
taken  no  such  hold  upon  our  people  as  they  have  upon  the 
Germans,  nor  is  there  the  same  need  of  them  with  us  be- 
cause our  elementary  school  articulates  directly  with  the 
high  school,  which  is  not  the  case  in  Germany.  But 
there  are  many  children  to  whom  the  high  school  does  not 
appeal,  and  therefore  continuation  schools  are  proposed 
with  courses  bearing  chiefly  upon  the  mechanical  and  in- 

HIST.   OF  ED.  —  22 


338  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION' 

dustrial  arts,  and  which  will  directly  prepare  for  an  occu- 
pation and  to  cover  the  critical  years  from  fourteen  to 
eighteen  of  a  boy's  life.  As  there  is  no  such  demand  upon 
the  youth  to  add  to  the  family  income  by  his  labor  as  in 
Germany,  the  continuation  school  may  be  held  during  the 
regular  hours  of  the  school  day  in  many  cases. 

Medical  Inspection  of  Schools.  —  A  careful  study  of  the 
ventilation,  lighting,  seating,  and  other  hygienic  conditions, 
as  well  as  construction  of  school  buildings,  has  character- 
ized recent  times.  In  many  places  not  only  school  mate- 
rials, but  also  textbooks,  are  furnished  free  of  cost  to  the 
pupil.  Physicians  are  also  employed  periodically  to  visit 
the  schools  and  examine  the  children  as  to  the  condition  of 
eyes  and  ears,  as  to  the  prevalence  of  disease,  and  as  to 
their  general  health.  Safeguards  are  inaugurated  to  pre- 
vent the  spread  of  contagious  diseases.  In  some  cities  free 
lunches  or  food  at  absolute  cost  are  furnished,  it  being 
recognized  that  the  child  cannot  do  intellectual  work  when 
suffering  from  lack  of  proper  nutrition.  All  of  these 
material  measures  are  founded  upon  the  theory  that  only 
under  best  conditions  can  the  best  results  be  obtained  in 
education,  and  therefore  it  is  true  economy  for  the  com- 
munity to  furnish  these  conditions. 

The  Certificating  of  Teachers.  —  In  the  early  history  of 
our  schools  little  attention  was  paid  to  the  qualifications  of 
teachers,  the  principal  question  being  whether  they  could 
keep  the  big  boys  in  order.  The  next  step  was  the  ex- 
amination by  the  town  committee,  which  often  was  crude 
indeed.  Then  followed  the  state  system  in  which  there 
were  state  examinations  combined  with  examinations  by 
county  superintendents.  The  state  certificates  were  gen- 
erally for  life  and  were  valid  anywhere  within  the  bound- 
aries of  the  state,  while  the  county  certificates  were  for 


RECENT  EDUCATIONAL  MOVEMENTS  339 

short  periods  —  one,  two,  or  three  years  —  and  were  valid 
only  in  the  county  in  which  they  were  issued.  Under  the 
latter  there  were  as  many  standards  as  there  were  county 
superintendents  and  consequently  there  was  no  uniformity 
and  little  progress.  A  teacher  who  had  failed  in  one 
county  could  cross  the  county  line  and  secure  a  certificate 
to  teach  in  that  other  county.  This  system  still  prevails 
in  most  states.  New  Jersey  has  taken  advanced  ground 
in  the  matter  of  licensing  teachers.  County  examinations 
have  been  abolished  and  all  certificates  are  issued  by  the 
State  department  and  are  valid  anywhere  in  the  state.  The 
cities,  however,  retain  the  right  to  license  the  teachers  of 
their  own  municipality.  State  certificates  may  be  obtained 
in  two  general  ways,  namely,  by  indorsement,  and  by  ex- 
amination. Diplomas  from  colleges  and  certificates  from 
other  states  are  indorsed,  provided  the  work  for  which 
these  documents  stands  meets  the  requirements  of  New 
Jersey,  and  provided  that  there  is  reciprocity  existing.  The 
questions  for  examination  are  issued  by  the  state  depart- 
ment under  the  direction  of  a  State  Board  of  Examiners. 
No  person  is  allowed  to  enter  the  examination  after  1915 
who  is  not  a  graduate  of  a  four-year  high  school  course 
or  has  had  its  equivalent. 

The  kinds  of  certificates  are  as  follows : 

1.  The  Elementary  Certificate,  valid  for  one  year,  may  be 
renewed  for  two  more  years,  and  becomes  permanent  after 
three  years  upon  taking  examinations  in  certain  specified 
subjects.     This  entitles  the  holder  to  teach  in  the  elemen- 
tary schools  only. 

2.  The  Secondary  Certificate,  also  limited  for  three  years, 
but  may  become  permanent  after  that  time  upon  passing 
the  required   examinations.     The   holder   may  teach  any 
branches  in  the  secondary  school  covered  by  his  certificate, 


340  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

and  is  also  entitled  to  the  privileges  included  in  the  ele- 
mentary certificate. 

3.  Supervisor's  Certificate,  limited  for  three  years,  but 
becomes  permanent  without  further  examination  provided 
his  success  as  a  supervisor  is  proven.     Candidates  for  the 
supervisor's  certificates  must  be  at  least  twenty-five  years 
old,  must  hold  a  permanent  elementary  or  secondary  cer- 
tificate, must  have  had  at  least  five  years'  successful  ex- 
perience in  teaching,   and  must  have  been    principal   ab 
least  for  one  year  of  a  school  employing  not  less  than  five 
teachers. 

4.  Special  Certificates  are  issued  on  the  same  general 
plan  for  teachers  in  the  kindergarten,  for  drawing,  manual 
training,  domestic  science,  stenography  and  typewriting, 
music,  physical  training,   etc.,   and  also  for  the  evening 
schools. 

5.  Vocational      Certificates.  —  Industrial,      agricultural, 
household    arts,    technical,     academic,    and     supervisor's 
vocational  certificates  follow  the  same  plan. 

In  each  case  there  is  first  a  limited  certificate,  valid  gen- 
erally for  three  years,  after  which  a  permanent  certificate 
is  given  upon  meeting  certain  requirements.  The  state 
thus  protects  itself  from  unqualified  teachers  being  per- 
manently settled  in  its  system,  while  teachers  who  have 
demonstrated  their  ability  are  protected  from  the  annoy- 
ance of  frequent  examinations.  All  graduates  of  normal 
schools  receive  a  permanent  certificate  to  teach  in  the  ele- 
mentary schools  of  any  part  of  the  state.  They  may  also 
teach  any  subjects  in  the  high  school  for  which  they  possess 
a  special  certificate. 

This  system  of  certificating  teachers  marks  a  distinct 
advance.  It  tends  to  unify  and  standardize  the  work  and 
does  much  to  make  teaching  a  profession  in  that,  like  medi- 


RECENT  EDUCATIONAL  MOVEMENTS  341 

cine,  law,  and  dentistry,  it  is  state  wide  in  its  jurisdiction  and 
application. 

Supervision.  —  There  are,  at  least,  four  tests  to  be  ap- 
plied to  any  efficient  school  system,  namely,  (i)  its  mode 
of  administering  the  schools,  that  is,  by  the  district,  town- 
ship, or  county  system  ;  (2)  its  mode  of  supporting  schools  ; 
(3)  its  scheme  of  certificating  teachers ;  and  (4)  the  kind  of 
supervision  it  maintains. 

Boone  points  out  that  there  are  three  stages  in  the  de- 
velopment of  our  school  systems.  "  I.  The  conviction 
made  general  that  every  child  should  receive  a  fair  share 
of  education.  2.  The  later,  but  equally  fundamental,  idea, 
that  the  property  of  the  state  should  be  responsible  for 
that  education.  3.  That  of  school  unity  and  system  secured 
by  supervision.  At  first  there  was  no  expert  supervision, 
each  school  being  a  law  unto  itself.  To  Horace  Mann 
must  be  given  the  credit  of  first  inaugurating  a  system  of 
supervision.  He  was  made  Secretary  of  the  Massachu- 
setts Board  of  Education,  practically  superintendent  of 
schools,  and  soon  the  necessity  of  expert  supervision  came 
to  be  recognized.  Dexter  tells  us  that,  "  School  committees 
in  many  towns,  recognizing  that  one  man  could  accomplish 
more  by  giving  his  whole  time  to  the  work  than  could  sev- 
eral whose  interests  and  time  were  divided,  delegated  su- 
pervisory duties  to  a  single  member,  and  had  him  desig- 
nated as  superintendent  of  schools.  A  little  later  men 
from  without  the  board,  who  were  skilled  in  school  matters, 
were  selected  for  these  positions,  and  we  have  the  origin 
of  the  modern  city  superintendent." 

The  first  city  to  establish  the  office  of  superintendent  of 
schools  is  Buffalo  in  1837.  But  the  idea  was  of  rather 
slow  development,  as  we  find  that  Philadelphia,  then  the 
second  city  in  size  in  the  country,  had  no  superintendent 


342  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

until  1883.  The  necessity  of  expert  supervision  is  now  so 
thoroughly  established  that  not  only  every  city  employs  a 
superintendent  with  corps  of  assistants  commensurate  with 
its  size,  but  the  States  at  large  and  the  counties,  also,  are 
equipped  with  supervisory  offices. 

State  Supervision.  —  Each  state  is  independent  in  its 
school  affairs,  there  being  no  national  system  of  education. 
(See  p.  313.)  The  administrative  duties  are  placed  in  the 
hands  of  a  State  Superintendent  of  Education,  who  shapes 
the  general  policy  of  the  state.  No  close  supervision  of 
the  schools  is  possible  by  the  department  of  education, 
owing  to  the  large  number  of  schools  and  the  territory 
comprised,  that  being  left  to  the  more  local  interests.  In 
some  states,  however,  such  supervision  is  carried  out  with 
reference  to  secondary  and  higher  schools. 

County  Supervision.  —  In  each  county  there  is  a  super- 
intendent who  looks  after  the  educational  affairs  of  his 
district.  In  many  cases  the  territory  is  so  large  and  the 
number  of  teachers  so  great  that  it  is  impossible  for  one 
man  to  make  any  proper  supervision  of  the  schools.  One 
or  two  hasty  visits  a  year  are  all  that  he  can  make,  and, 
therefore,  no  matter  how  capable  and  enthusiastic  he  may 
be,  it  is  not  possible  for  him  to  do  more  than  general  su- 
pervision. Recognizing  these  facts  in  some  states,  many 
townships  employ  a  supervising  principal,  who  is  able  to 
come  into  close  touch  with  the  schools  and  the  teachers. 
Sometimes  two  or  more  adjacent  townships  unite  in  em- 
ploying such  an  officer.  Working  in  conjunction  with  the 
county  superintendent,  and  having  fewer  administrative 
duties,  these  men  are  able  to  bring  even  the  rural  schools 
up  to  a  high  state  of  efficiency.  Recognizing  the  impor- 
tance of  such  supervision  the  state  of  New  Jersey  en- 
courages the  townships  to  employ  supervising  principals 


RECENT  EDUCATIONAL  MOVEMENTS  343 

by  contributing  six  hundred  dollars  from  the  state  school 
moneys  towards  their  support.  Large  numbers  of  the 
townships  are  taking  advantage  of  this  law  and  the  effect 
is  most  wholesome. 

City  Supervision.  —  In  the  cities  the  system  of  super- 
vision has  been  worked  out  to  the  highest  -degree  of 
efficiency.  While  in.  a  large  city  the  head  of  the  system, 
like  a  general,  must  devote  his  time  and  energy  largely  to 
administrative  duties,  he  is  aided  by  assistants  and  super- 
visors, who  are  able  to  come  into  closest  contact  with  ac- 
tual school  work,  unifying  and  strengthening  it,  stimulating 
and  building  up  the  teachers,  and  advancing  the  general 
work  of  education.  In  this  work  they  are  aided  by  the 
principal  of  each  school,  whose  work  is  almost  wholly 
supervisory. 

All  of  these  men  are  trained  educational  experts,  having 
reached  their  positions  by  long  experience  and  careful 
study  in  the  field  of  education. 

The  Montessori  Method.  —  Much  attention  has  recently 
been  attracted  to  the  method  advocated  and  put  into  prac- 
tice by  Madame  Montessori,  a  trained  physician  in  Rome. 
Her  first  work  was  with  feeble-minded  children  and  her 
success  was  so  remarkable  that  she  determined  to  try  her 
method  with  normal  children,  believing  that  sound  peda- 
gogical principles  lie  at  the  basis  of  her  system.  The  re- 
sults with  normal  children  seem  to  justify  her  claim.  Her 
schools  are  termed  Casa  del  Bambini,  or  "  Children's 
Houses,"  and  are  generally  located  in  tenements  where 
many  children  live.  The  schools  are  held  from  eight  in 
the  morning  until  seven  in  the  evening  without  cessation, 
thus  being  somewhat  of  the  nature  of  a  day  nursery. 

As  the  method  is  applied  chiefly  to  little  children, 
though  Dr.  Montessori  believes  that  it  can  be  adapted  to 


344 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


all   classes   of  children,  comparisons  between  it  and  the 
kindergarten  are  natural. 

Contrasts  and  Likenesses 


Kindergarten 

Sense-training  is  incidental. 
It  trains  through  games,  such 

as  playing  farming,  housekeeping, 

etc. 

The  children  are  taught  in 
groups. 

The  exercises  are  quite  formal 
and  regulated,  though  every  effort 
is  made  to  make  the  children 
happy. 


It  has  short  hours,  the  session 
rarely  ever  being  over  three  hours. 
It  can  therefore  devote  the  whole 
time  to  purely  educational  work. 


The  Kindergarten  as  such  gives 
little  attention  to  teaching  read- 
ing, number,  and  other  common 
school  subjects.  In  Germany  it 
is  not  allowed  to  teach  the  school 
subjects  in  the  Kindergarten. 


Montessori  System 
Sense-training  is  direct. 
It    trims    through  actual  life. 
The     child     dusts,    sets     tables, 
sweeps,  etc.,  actually   performing 
the  duties  of  housekeeping. 

The  children  are  taught  singly. 

Great  stress  is  laid  upon  free- 
dom both  in  the  school  work  and 
in  discipline,  the  child  being  al- 
lowed to  do  as  he  pleases  unless 
he  interferes  with  the  rights  of 
others. 

The  hours  are  very  long,  ex- 
tending from  early  morning  till 
evening,  thus  making  the  purpose 
entirely  different  from  that  of  the 
Kindergarten.  The  children  must 
be  fed,  given  opportunity  to  sleep, 
and  cared  for  all  their  waking 
hours.  This  gives  mothers  free- 
dom to  go  out  to  service  during 
the  whole  day. 

Madame  Montessori  claims 
great  results  in  the  teaching  of 
these  subjects,  special  methods  in 
reading,  penmanship,  and  number 
being  advocated. 


What   the   effect   of   the  Montessori  system  upon  our 
schools  will  be  is  problematical.     It  is  not  likely  that  it 


RECENT  EDUCATIONAL  MOVEMENTS  345 

will  supplant  the  Kindergarten,  which  is  strongly  in- 
trenched throughout  the  country.  It  must  be  remembered 
that  modern  methods  of  teaching  have  but  little  hold  in 
Italy,  and  therefore  many  of  the  reforms  advocated  by 
Madame  Montessori  have  long  been  received  in  other 
countries.  Attention  is  also  called  to  the  fact  that  the 
Italian  language,  being  so  purely  phonic,  lends  itself  pecul- 
iarly to  this  method,  especially  in  reading.  Dr.  Montessori 
has  stimulated  educational  activity,  not  only  in  her  own 
country,  but  also  in  many  other  countries.  It  will  take 
time  to  determine  the  permanent  value  of  her  methods  in 
solving  educational  problems.  . 


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SKINNER,  H.  M.     The  Schoolmaster  in  Literature. 
The  Schoolmaster  in  Comedy  and  Satire. 

SMITH,  WILLIAM.     History  of  Greece. 
History  of  Rome. 

SONNENSCHEIN  &  Co.     Cyclopaedia  of  Education. 

SPOFFORD,  A.  R.     Library  of  Historical  Characters  (10  vols.). 

STEEG,   M.    JULES.      Emile ;   or,    Concerning    Education    (trans,  by 
Eleanor  Worthington). 

STILLE,  C.  J.     Studies  in  Mediaeval  History. 

STODDARD,  JOHN  L.     Lectures  on  Travel. 

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TAUNTON.    The  English  Black  Monks  of  St.  Benedict. 
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U 

UFER,  C.     Introduction  to  the  Pedagogy  of  Herbart. 
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V 

VAN  LIEW,  C.  C.     Life  of  Herbart  and  Development  of  his  Pedagogi- 
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INDEX 


A.  B.  C.  der  Anschauung,  Herbart's,  285. 
Abelard  at  University  of  Paris,  145. 
Benedictine  teacher,  122. 
leader  of  scholasticism,  126. 
Academies,  in  French  school  administra- 
tion, 300,  301. 

Academies,  early  American,  324. 
Agricola,    Johannes,    school    course    of, 

180  n. 
Agricola,  Rudolphus,  father  of  German 

humanism,  157,  162. 
lectures  of,  162. 
Agriculture,  study  of,  335. 
Ahriman,  principle  of  darkness  in  Per- 
sian religion,  43. 

Albigenses,  reformers  in  France,  169. 
Alcohol,  Arabians  discover,  149. 
Alcuin  of  England,  Benedictine  teacher, 

122. 

teacher  of  Charlemagne,  131. 
Alexander  the  Great,  pupil  of  Aristotle, 

69. 
Alexandria,  catechetical  school  at,   in, 

112. 

Museum  of,  54. 
Saracenic  school  at,  144. 
school  of  rabbis  at,  48. 
seat  of  philosophy,  in. 
Alexandrian  library  fostered  by  the  Ptole- 
mies, 54. 

Alfred  the  Great,  becomes  king,  134. 
character  and  history  of,  134. 
education  of,  135. 
encourages  education  of  higher  classes, 

306. 

establishes  monasteries,  135. 
founds  Oxford  University,  135. 
influence  on  English  education,  135. 
literary  work  of,  135. 
statesmanship  of,  134. 
Algebra,  modern  form  of,  149. 
Allgemeine  Pddagogik,  Herbart's,  285. 
Ambrose,  St.,  bishop  of  Milan,  118. 
America,  discovery  of,  169. 

early  schools  in,  319. 
American  Revolution,  establishes  princi- 
ple of  self-government,  243. 
Analects  of  Confucius,  31. 


Analytical  method  of  Aristotle,  7 1 . 
Anatomy,  in  Milton's  scheme  of  educa- 
tion, 223. 
Annual  Reports,  Horace  Mann's,  290. 

of  Bureau  of  Education,  314. 
Anselm,  founder  of  scholasticism,  1 26. 
Antioch,  catechetical  school  at,  in. 
Antioch    College,    Horace    Mann    presi- 
dent of,  292. 

Apostles,  active  in  education,  105. 
Apostles'  Creed,  taught  during  Charle- 
magne's reign,  132. 
Apostolic  Constitution  quoted,  117. 
Apprentice  schools,  in  France,  303. 
Aquinas,  Thomas,   Benedictine  teacher, 
122. 

leader  of  scholasticism,  1 26. 
Arabians,  services  to  education,  149. 
Architecture,  in  Milton's  scheme  of  edu- 
cation, 223. 
Aristotle,  analytical  method  of,  71. 

Athenian  philosopher,  60. 

called  the  Stagirite,  69. 

pedagogy  of,  outlined,  70,  71. 

pupil  of  Plato,  69. 

teacher  of  Alexander  the  Great,  69. 
Arithmetic,  in  Charlemagne's  reign,  132. 

in  Chinese  schools,  25. 

in  India,  36,  37. 

in  Jewish  education,  47. 

in  Milton's  scheme  of  education,  223. 

in  monastic  education,  123. 

in  Roman  schools,  82. 
Arrondissements,  in  French  school  sys- 
tem, 301. 
Art,  in  Athens,  60. 

in  Egypt,  51. 

Arts,  seven  liberal,  122,  131. 
Aryans,  in  Greece,  57. 

in  India,  34. 

in  Persia,  40. 

Asceticism,  influence  on  civilization,  1 20. 
Ascham,  Roger,  English  educator,  194. 

method  of,  195. 

Scholemaster ,  194. 

tutor  to  Elizabeth,  194. 
Assistant  teachers,  311. 
Astrology,  applications  of,  124. 


357 


358 


INDEX 


Astronomy,  applications  of,  1 24. 

Arabians'  services  to,  149. 

Copernican  system,  162. 
Astronomy  taught  in  Egypt,  54. 

taught  in  Mohammedan  schools,  149. 

taught  to  Jews,  47. 
Athenian  education,  criticism  of,  63. 
Athenian  educators,  65-71. 

Aristotle,  60-71. 

Plato,  60-71. 

Socrates,  65,  66. 
Athens,  60-64. 

aesthetic  education  in,  62,  63. 

Aristotle  founds  Lyceum  at,  70. 

art  and  literature  in,  58. 

center  of  learning,  79. 

contrasted  with  Sparta,  60. 

criticism  of  education  in,  63. 

democratic  government  in,  61. 

history  of,  60. 

home  in,  61. 

laws  of  Solon,  61. 

Pericles,  Socrates,  Plato,  Aristotle,  60. 

philosophers  from,  at  Museum  of  Alex- 
andria, 54,  55. 

play  important  factor  in  child  life,  61. 

Romans  study  at,  78. 

study  of  poets,  61,  63. 

training  of  children,  61. 

woman's  status  in,  62,  94. 
Attendance,     compulsory,     in     English 
schools,  310. 

in  French  schools,  301,  302. 

in  German  schools,  295,  296. 

in  United  States  schools,  316. 
Augustine,  St.,  City  of  God,  Confessions, 
118. 

conversion  of,  118. 

influence  of,  22,  119. 

life  of,  1 1 8. 

pedagogy,  119. 

services  to  education,  105. 

works  of,  used  in  monasteries,  123. 
Augustus,  age  of,  78,  79. 
Azarias,  Brother,  on  La  Salle,  232. 

on  the  Simultaneous  Method,  231. 

Babylon,  Saracenic  school  at,  144. 

school  of  rabbis  at,  48. 
Bacon,  Francis,  character  of,  210. 

Comenius  applies  principles  of,  218. 

degradation  of,  211. 

Inductive  Method  introduced,  211,  212. 

influence  of,  22. 

life  of,  209. 

Montaigne's  influence  on,  199. 

new  era  in  education,  213. 

Novum  Organum,  211. 


Bacon  —  Continued. 

object  teaching  of,  193. 

on  Jesuit  schools,  190,  191. 

pedagogy  of,  212,  213. 

political  advancement  of,  210. 

reforms  of,  208. 
Bagdad,  caliphs  foster  education,  149. 

Saracenic  school  at,  144. 
Barrett,  influences  Horace  Mann,  289. 
Basedow,   Elementary  Book   (Elementar- 
buch),  255. 

failure  of,  258. 

life  of,  254. 

methods  of  teaching,  254. 

pedagogy  of,  257,  259,  260. 

Philanthropin  established,  255,  256. 

professor  at  Soroe,  255. 

writings  of,  259. 

Basel,  center  of  printing  industry,  166. 
Basil  the  Great,  life  of,  no. 

pedagogy  of,  1 10. 

service_s  to  education,  105. 
Beautifying  of  schoolrooms,  201,  202. 
Bell,  Andrew,  founds  National  Schools, 
309- 

Monitorial  system  of,  311. 
Belles-Lettres,  in  Chinese  education,  29. 
Benedict,  St.,  principles  of,  121. 
Benedictines,  growth  of,  121. 

principles  of,  121. 

schools  founded  by,  122. 

teachers,  122. 
Berlin  Conference,  240  n. 
Bernsdorf,  Danish  minister  of  education, 

255- 
Besant,  Walter,  on  Rabelais,   197,   198, 

199. 
Bible,  only  literature  of  early  Christians, 

99. 

study  of,  157. 

translated  by  Alfred  the  Great,  135. 
translated  into  German,  172. 
Biographies  of  educators,  2  2 . 
Blankenburg,  Froebel's  school  at,  280. 
Bluntschli,  advice  to  Pestalozzi,  264. 
Board   of   Education   in   United    States 

school  system,  314,  315. 
Board  schools,  established  in    England, 

309- 

Boatman,  third  caste  in  Egypt,  52. 
Boccaccio,    humanistic  leader  of  Italy, 

159, 161. 

influences  of,  155. 
Body,  care  of,  225,  234. 
Bologna,  university  established  at,  128. 
Boniface,     of     Germany,     Benedictine 

teacher,  122. 
Book  of  Method,  Basedow's,  259. 


INDEX 


359 


Books,  school,  adoption  of,  294. 

Bouillon,  Godfrey  of,  leads  first  crusade, 
141. 

Brahma,  Hindu  worship  of,  37. 

Brahmanism,    Buddha    seeks    to    over- 
throw, 39. 

Brahmans,  highest  caste  in  India,  33,  34, 

35,  36,  37- 
marriage  of,  36. 

Brotherhood  of  man,  value  of  principle, 

95- 

Brothers    of   the    Christian    Schools,    La 
Salle  organizes,  229. 

Brown    University,    Horace    Mann    at, 
289. 

Browning,  on  Milton's  scheme  of  educa- 
tion, 224. 

Buddha,  religion  in  China,  25,  26,  31. 
in  India,  35. 
religion  based  on  moral  acts,  39. 

Budding  Intellect,  Chinese  degree,  30. 

Bulfinch,  on  Charlemagne,  130. 

Bureau  of  Education,  U.  S.,  311. 

Burgdorf,  Froebel  at,  279. 
Pestalozzi  teaches  at,  270. 

Burgundy,  Duke  of,  taught  by  Fenelon, 
228,  229. 

Caen,  university  at,  145. 
Cahors,  university  at,  145. 
Calculating  boards,  in  Athens,  63. 
Caliphs,  foster  education,  149. 
Cambray,  Bishop  of,  aids  Erasmus,  165. 
Cambridge,  University  of,  145. 
Campe,  leader  of  Philanthropin,  258. 
Canterbury,  cloister  school  at,  122. 
Cantons,  in  French  school  system,  301. 
Caste  system,  in  Egypt,  51-53. 

in  India,  34,  36. 
Catechetical  schools,  in,  112. 

decay  of,  114. 
Catechumen  schools,  108. 
Cathedral  schools,  143  n. 
Catholic  Church.     See  Church. 
Cavaliers,    struggle    with    Roundheads, 

204. 

Certificating  of  teachers,  338. 
Ceylon,  Buddhism  in,  39. 
Charlemagne,  education  of,  137. 

encourages  education,  131,  132. 

history,  character,  purpose  of,  129, 130. 

School  of  Palace  established,  131. 

summary  of  work  of,  132. 
Charles  V.,  of  Spain,  Emperor  of  Ger- 
many, 169,  170. 
Chemistry,     taught    in     Mohammedan 

schools,  149. 
Child  study,  334. 


Children,  a  sacred  trust,  95. 

home  training  of  early  Christians,  98. 

among  Jews,  45,  46. 

in  Athens,  61. 

in  Egypt,  53. 

in  India,  36. 

in  Persia,  41. 

in  Rome,  80,  81. 

in  Sparta,  73. 

weak,  cast  out  in  Sparta,  71,  77. 
China,  20—32. 

alphabet,  28. 

civilization  of,  21. 

classics  of,  26. 

Confucius,  31-32. 

conservative  character  of,  21. 

criticism  of  education,  30. 

elementary  schools  in,  24. 

geography  and  history  of,  20,  21. 

government  and  language  in,  21. 

higher  education  in,  26. 

home  in,  23. 

modern  system,  28. 

motive  for  education,  27. 

new  movement  in,  27. 

relation  of  parents  and  children,  23. 

religion  in,  22. 

science  and  inventions  in,  26. 
Christ,  disciples  of,  96,  97. 

influence  of,  100,  101. 

life  and  character  of,  100,  101. 

methods  of,  101,  102. 

nature  study  of,  103. 

principles  of,  104,  105. 

teacher,  101—104. 

truth  preached  by,  103. 

type  of  perfect  manhood,  100. 

value  of  teachings  of,  93,  99. 
Christian  education,  93-318. 

aim  of,  95. 

Alfred  the  Great's  influence,  134,  135. 

Basil  the  Great,  no,  in. 

Benedictines,  121,  122. 

catechetical  schools,  in. 

catechumen  schools,  108. 

Charlemagne,  129-133. 

Chrysostom,  109,  no. 

church  connection  with,  105. 

Clement  of  Alexandria,  113. 

conflict  with  pagan  education,  115-199. 

crusades,  106,  140-142. 

difficulties  in  establishment  of,  99. 

feudal  education,  136-139. 

first  Christian  schools,  108,  109. 

general  view  of,  91,  105,  107. 

importance  of  individual,  95. 

lessons  and  principles  of,  94,  95. 

monastic  education,  106,  120—124. 


36o 


INDEX 


Christian  education  —  Continued. 

Origen,  114. 

St.  Augustine,  118,  IIQ. 

scholasticism,  125-128. 

seven  liberal  arts,  123,  124. 

slow  growth  of,  96,  97.  See  also 
Renaissance,  Humanistic  educators, 
Reformation,  Protestant  educators, 
Jesuits,  Modern  educators,  School 
systems,  and  sixteenth,  seventeenth, 
eighteenth,  and  nineteenth  century 
education. 

Tertullian,  116,  117. 

Teutonic  peoples,  instrument  of  civili- 
zation, 107. 

universities,  143-145. 

Christiania,  university  at,  145. 
Christianity,  influence  of,  100,  101. 

lessons  of,  94-96. 

See  also  Christian  education. 
Chrysostom,    educational    principles   of, 
109,  no. 

life  of,  109. 

services  to  education,  105. 
Church,   animosities  between   Catholics 
and  Protestants,  204. 

authority  in  Renaissance,  154. 

controls  education,  116,  143,  320. 

corruption  of,  155,  156,  170,  172. 

degradation  of,  155. 

influence  of  St.  Augustine's  writings 
on,  119. 

supremacy  of,  1 20. 

the  mother  of  schools,  106. 
Church  Fathers,  direct  educational  move- 
ments, 105. 

opposed  to  pagan  literature,  117,  124. 
Cicero,  called  Father  of  his  Country,  86. 

character  of,  86. 

death  of,  86. 

education  of,  85. 

We  of,  85. 

pedagogy  of,  87. 

Philippics  of,  86. 

Roman  consul,  86. 

services  to  education,  87. 

works  of,  studied  in  monastic  educa- 
tion, 113. 

Citizens  in  Sparta,  72. 
City  of  God,  St.  Augustine's,  116. 
City  supervision,  343. 
Classic     languages,    Humanists     revive 
study,  153. 

in  Trotzendorf's  pedagogy,  182. 

new  interest  in,  153,  154. 
Classic  literature,  revival  of  study  of, 
159-161. 

Tertullian  excludes,  117. 


Clement  of  Alexandria,  pedagogy,  113. 

pupil  of  Pantaenus,  113. 

teacher,  113. 

Clermont,  Jesuit  college  of,  187. 
Climate  a  factor  in  education,  16. 
Cloister  schools  established,  122. 
Clothing  of  children,  Locke's  rules  re- 
garding, 225. 
Coeducation,  in  France,  302. 

in  German  villages,  296. 

in  Sparta,  75. 
Colleges,  in  United  States  school  system, 

316,317,327. 
Colloquies,  Erasmus's,  166. 
Cologne,  cloister  school  at,  122. 

university  of,  145. 
Comenius,  Johann  Amos,  banished,  216. 

Didactica  Magna,  217. 

education  of,  215,  216. 

educational  works  of,  218. 

honors  bestowed  on,  217. 

influence  of,  18. 

influence  of  Bacon  on,  218. 

Latin  Bohemian  dictionary  of,  217. 

member  of  Moravian  Brethren,  215. 

object  teaching  of,  193. 

Pestalozzi  applies  principles  of,  273. 

reforms  of,  208. 

settles  in  Poland,  217. 

summary  of  his  work,  219. 

trials  of,  216. 
Commandments,    Ten,     oldest    writing 

among  Israelites,  48. 
Committee  of  Council  on  Education,  in 

England,  309. 
Common  schools,  importance  of,  291. 

in  Germany,  296. 

in  United  States,  314. 
Commonwealth,  established,  204. 
Communes,  in  French  education,  304. 
Compass,  invention  of,  152. 
Compayre,  on  Comenius,  218. 

on  Jesuit  schools,  189,  191. 

on  Jesuits  and  Jansenists,  193. 

on  La  Salle,  232. 

on  Locke,  225. 

on  Montaigne's  pedagogy,  202. 

on  Rabelais's  Gargantua,  198,  199. 

on  Rousseau,  246,  250. 

on  the  Reformation,  170,  171. 

on  the  Renaissance,  125. 
Compulsory    education,     among    Jews, 
46. 

Charlemagne  introduces,  132. 

in  England,  310. 

in  France,  301,  302. 

in  Germany,  174,  185,  207. 

in  United  States,  316. 


INDEX 


361 


Compulsory  education  —  Continued. 

Luther  insists  on,  178. 

Plato's  scheme  of,  69. 
Conduct  of  Schools,  La  Salle's,  232. 
Confessions,  Rousseau's,  246,  247. 
Confessions,  St.  Augustine's,  118. 
Confucius,  analects  of,  32. 
Conrad  III.,  of   Germany,  leads  second 

crusade,  141. 

Constance,  cloister  school  at,  122. 
Continuation  schools,  in  Germany,  296. 

in  America,  337. 
Copenhagen,  university  at,  145. 
Copernicus,  astronomical  discoveries  of, 

152,  206. 
Cordova,  caliphs  of,  foster  education,  149. 

Saracenic  school  at,  144. 
Corporal  punishment,  among  Jews,  47. 

Basil  the  Great  on,  110. 

Cicero's  views  regarding,  87. 

in  Jesuit  schools,  190. 

Quintilian's  views  regarding,  91 . 
Council,    Educational,    governs    French 

departements,  301. 
Counter-Reformation,  186. 
County,  school  administration  of,  314. 
County  system  in  the  United  States,  322, 

342. 

Cramer,  on  the  crusades,  142. 
Criticism,  of  Athenian  education,  63. 

of  Chinese  education,  30. 

of  Egyptian  education,  55. 

of  Feudal  education,  139. 

of  Hindu  education,  38,  39. 

of  Jesuit  education,  192. 

of  Jewish  education,  48,  190. 

of  Persian  education,  42. 

of  Roman  education,  84. 

of  Spartan  education,  75. 
Cromwell,  Commonwealth  under,  204. 
Crusades,   influence  on   education,    106, 
107,  140-142. 

results  of,  142. 
Curtius,  quoted,  76. 

Dancing,  taught  among  Jews,  46. 
Dante,  banishment  of,  160. 

birth  of,  159. 

Divine  Comedy,  160. 

education  of,  159,  160. 

humanistic  leader  of  Italy,  159. 

influence  of,  155. 
Dark  Ages,  slow  progress  during,  105. 

end  of,  152. 

David,  founder  of  Hebrew  literature,  48. 
Dean,  M.  Ida,  on  schools  in  India,  37. 
Decimal  system  originated  by  Hindus, 
38. 


De  Garmo,  on  Herbart  as  a  teacher,  283. 
Degrees  in  China,  29,  30. 

in  French  universities,  203. 
Demia,  Charles,  231. 
Democratic  government  in  Athens,  61. 
Departement,  erect  normal  schools,  304. 

in  French  school  system,  301. 
Dervishes,  in  Persia,  42. 
Descartes  on  Jesuit  schools,  190. 
Deserving  of  Promotion,  Chinese  degree, 

30. 

Dessau,  institute  at.     See  Philanthropin. 
Dialectical  method,  of  Socrates,  66. 
Dialogues  of  the  Dead,  Fenelon's,  229. 
Didactica  Magna,  Comenius's,  217.     See 

Great  Didactic. 
Discipline,  in  Chinese  schools,  25. 

in  Indian  schools,  36. 

in  Jewish  schools,  47. 

in  Roman  schools,  severe,  82. 
Discoveries,  during  Renaissance,  152. 
District   inspector,   in   German   schools, 

295- 
District  school  board,  in  Germany,  290, 

295- 
District  system  of  education,  in  United 

States,  315,  322. 
Dittes,  quoted,  46,  278. 
Draper,  on  St.  Augustine,  119. 
Drieser,  on  Quintilian,  90  n. 
Dualistic  philosophy,  of  Zoroaster,  43. 
Duns  Scotus,  Benedictine  leader,  122. 

leader  of  scholasticism,  1 26. 
Dyeing,  in  ancient  Egypt,  51. 

Earth,  size  of,  ascertained,  149. 
Eberhard,  Count,  Reuchlin's  friend,  163. 
Education  of  Girls,  Fenelon's,  228. 
Education  of  Man,  Froebel's,  281. 
Egypt,  50-56.  _ 

antiquity  of  its  history,  51. 

caste  system  in,  51-53. 

criticism  of  education  in,  54. 

dyeing,  embalming,  etc.,  in,  51 

geography  and  history  of,  50,  53. 

higher  education  in,  54. 

home  in,  53. 

influence  of  priests  in,  51,  52. 

mechanic  arts  in,  51. 

military  class  in,  52. 

motive  for  education  in,  56. 

pilgrimages  to,  for  study,  51. 

polygamy  in,  53.  _ 

status  of  woman  in,  53. 
Egyptian  education,  criticism  of,  55. 
Eighteenth   century    education,    general 
view  of,  241-244. 

See  also  Modern  educators. 


362 


INDEX 


Elementary  Book  (Elementarbuch) ,  Base- 

dow's,  256,  259. 

Elementary  education,  among  Arabians, 
149. 

in  Athens,  62. 

in  China,  24. 

in  England,  310. 

in  France,  302,  303. 

in  Germany,  196. 

in  India,  36-40. 

in  Rome,  81. 

in  United  States,  316. 

neglected  by  Jesuits,  188. 
Elizabeth,  Queen,  taught  by  Roger  As- 

cham,  194,  196. 

Emerson,  on  the  Middle  Ages,  151. 
Emile,  Rousseau's,  247-253. 
Emulation,  as  incentive  in  Jesuit  schools, 

190,  192. 
Engineering,  in  Ancient  Egypt,  51-54. 

in  Milton's  scheme  of  education,  223. 
England,  administration  of  schools,  309. 

attendance  in  schools,  310. 

educational  enterprise  in,  312. 

school  system  of,  307-318. 

support  of  schools  in,  311. 

teachers  in,  311,  312,  318. 
English  rule  in  India,  35. 
Environment,  a  factor  in  education,  16, 17. 
Erasmus,  Colloquies,  166. 

compared  with  Luther,  166. 

humanistic  leader,  157. 

life  of,  165. 

literary  authority  of  world,  166. 

on  Agricola,  162. 

on  Melanchthon,  175. 

pedagogy  of,  166,  167. 

Praise  of  Folly,  166. 

studies  of,  165. 

translation  of  Greek  testament,  166. 
Erfurt,  Francke  preacher  at,  237. 

university  of,  145. 
Erigena,  leader  of  scholasticism,  126. 

principles  of,  126. 

Ernst  of  Gotha,  Duke,  school  law  of,  207. 
Essay    Concerning    Human    Understand- 
ing, Locke's,  225. 
Essays,  Montaigne's,  202. 
Essex,  benefactor  of  Bacon,  210. 
Eton,  college  at,  178,  310. 
Euclid,  used  in  monastic  education,  123. 
Eudemon,  page  in  Rabelais's  Gargantua, 

198. 
Evening  Hours  of  a  Hermit,  Pestalozzi's, 

267.  _ 
Examinations,  in  Athens,  62. 

in  China,  26. 
Exercise,  Locke's  rules  regarding,  225. 


Fables,  Fenelon's,  227. 

Factory  laws,  in  England,  310. 

Family,  the  foundation  of  education,  17. 

See  Home. 
Farmers,  caste  in  India,  34. 

education  of,  38. 

third  caste  in  Egypt,  52. 
Fathers  of   church,   opposed   to   pagan 

literature,  117. 
Faurier,  Peter,  231. 

F6nelon,    compared   with    Seneca,    229, 
230. 

education  of,  227,  228. 

Education  of  Girls,  228. 

head  of  convent  of  new  Catholics,  228. 

pedagogy  of,  230,  231. 

preceptor  of  grandson  of  Louis  XIV., 
228. 

priest,  228. 

reforms  of,  208. 

works  of,  229. 

Feudal  barons,  influence  of,  137. 
Feudal  education,  136—139. 

criticism  of,  139. 
Feudalism,  crusades  break  power  of,  142. 

denned,  136. 

Fichte,  Herbart  student  of,  281 . 
Finances,  school,  294. 
Fit  for  Office,  Chinese  degree,  27. 
Food  of  children,  Locke's  rules  regard- 
ing, 225. 

Forest  of  Pencils,  Chinese  degree,  27. 
Formalism  in  instruction,  198. 
Forsyth,  on  Cicero,  85-87. 
France,  administration  of  schools,  300, 
301. 

attendance  in  schools,  301. 

mother  schools  in,  302. 

normal  schools  in,  301. 

school  system,  300-307. 

support  of  schools,  303,  304. 

teachers,  304,  306. 
Francis  I.,  of  France,  169. 
Francke,    August    Hermann,    called    to 
University  of  Halle,  237. 

education  of,  236. 

founds  orphan  asylum  at  Halle,  238. 

Institutions  at  Halle,  238. 

organizes    teachers'    class    at    Halle, 
242. 

Privat  Docent  at  Leipsic,  236. 

Real-school,  240. 

training  of  teachers,  239. 

work  among  poor,  237,  238. 
Frankfurt-am-Main,  Froebel  teaches  in, 

277. 

Frederick  Barbarossa  of  Germany,  leads 
third  crusade,  141. 


INDEX 


363 


Frederick    I.,   recognizes    university   at 

Bologna,  144. 
Free  schools,  established  in  France,  298- 

304- 

in  Germany,  297. 

in  United  States,  317. 
Freiburg-im-Breisgau,  university  at,  145. 
French  Revolution,  lessons  of,  240. 
Froebel,   Friedrich  Wilhelm  August,  as 
teacher,  277. 

at  Burgdorf,  279. 

Froebel,  F.  W.  A.,  at  Universities  of  Got- 
tingen  and  Berlin,  278. 

Education  of  Man,  Songs  for  Mother 
and  Nursery,  281 . 

Fenelon  anticipates,  230. 

first  school  of,  279. 

influence  of,  18. 

kindergarten  of,  280. 

lectures  of,  281. 

life  of,  276,  277. 

object  teaching  of,  193. 

on  Pestalozzi,  278. 

school  at  Griesheim  and  Keilhau,  275. 

soldier,  279. 
Fulda,  cloister  school  at,  122. 

Galileo,  punishment  of,  121. 

Gargantua,  Rabelais' s,  197. 

Gate  of  Tongues   Unlocked,  Comenius's, 

218. 
Geography,  a  factor  in  education,  16. 

in  Milton's  scheme  of  education,  223. 

in  monastic  education,  123. 

Neander  favors  study  of,  183. 
Geometry,    discovery    of    Pythagorean 
theorem,  77. 

in  catechetical  schools,  112. 

in  Jewish  schools,  47. 

in  Milton's  scheme  of  education,  223. 

in  monastic  education,  123. 
Germany,  administration  of  schools,  293. 

attendance  in  schools,  295. 

effects  of  30  Years'  War  on,  205,  206. 

humanism  in,  161. 

school  system  of,  173,  203,  293-299. 

State  assumes  responsibility  of  educa- 
tion, 178. 

support  of  schools,  297. 

teachers  in,  298. 

Gibbon,  Edward,  quoted,  79,  154. 
Girls,  education  of,  among  Jews,  45. 

Fenelon  advocates  education  of,  230. 

in  Athens,  62. 

in  China,  26. 

in  Egypt,  54. 

in  Rome,  84. 

in  Sparta,  75. 


Girls  —  Continued. 

sale  of,  in  India,  65. 

schools  for,  in  Germany,  185. 
Glaucha,  Francke  pastor  at,  237. 
Goethe,  on  the  Emile,  253. 
Goldberg,  Trotzendorf  rector  at,  182. 
Gottingen,  Univeristy  of,  284. 
Government,  administrative  school  board 
of,  in  Germany,  294. 

democratic,  in  Athens,  61. 

no  control  of  schools  in  China,  24. 

of  Romans,  79. 

Government,  self,  in  schools,  182,  183. 
Graduate  school  in  United  States  school 

system,  316. 
Grammar,  study  of,  begun,  63. 

in  Athenian  schools,  63. 

in  catechetical  schools,  112. 

in  Mohammedan  schools,  149. 

in  monastic  schools,  123. 
Greard  on  Rousseau,  250. 
Great  Didactic,  Comenius's,  217,  218. 

organization  of  school  system  in,  219- 

221. 

Great  Teacher,  The.     See  Christ. 
Greece,  57-59. 

art  and  literature  in,  59. 

Athens  and  Sparta,  59. 

geography  and  history  in,  57. 

manners  and  customs  in,  58. 

Olympian  games  in,  58. 

political  freedom  in,  58. 
Greek  culture,  influence  on  Rome,  78, 

79,  84. 

Greek  language,  importance  of,  in  human 
culture,  161. 

in  Milton's  scheme  of  education,  223. 

in  pedagogy  of  Innovators,  208. 

introduced  into  Germany,  164. 

Reuchlin  introduces  study  of,  164. 

revival  of  study  of,  154,  157. 

study  of,  in  Rome,  78. 

taught  in  Sturm's  school  course,  180. 
Greek  text-books,  Neander's,  184. 
Greifswald,  University  of,  145. 
Griesheim,  Froebel's  first  school  at,  280. 
Gruner,    Dr.,    head    master    of    Model 
School  at  Frankfurt-am-Main,  277. 
Guienne,  Montaigne  studies  at,  200. 
Gunpowder,  invention  of,  152. 
Gutenberg,  invents  printing,  168. 
Gymnasia,  furnished  by  State  in  Athens, 

62. 
Gymnasium,  course  in,  297. 

established  by  Francke,  238. 

purpose  of,  240  n. 
Gymnastics,  taught  in  Athens,  62. 

in  Sparta,  75. 


364 


INDEX 


Hakem  III.,  fosters  education,  149. 
Ilallam,  on  Agricola,  162. 
Halle,  Institutions  at,  238. 

Pietists  found  university  at,  235,  236. 

teacher's  class  at,  232. 
Hamburg,  cloister  school  at,  122. 
Hatilin,  Royal  Academy,  in  China,  29. 
Harris,  Dr.,  on  Pestalozzi,  275. 
Harrow,  college  at,  178,  310. 
Hebrew,  revival  of  study,  157. 

used   in   interpreting   Scripture,    162, 

164. 
Hebrew  Grammar  and  Lexicon,  Reuch- 

lin's,  163. 
Hecker,    founds  first   Prussian   Normal 

School,  232. 

Hegel,  Aristotle  compared  to,  71. 
Hegira,    Mohammedanism    dates   from, 

147. 

Heidelberg,  center  of  humanistic  move- 
ment, 157. 

Reuchlin  at,  164. 

University  of,  128,  145. 
Heliopolis,  institution  for  higher  learning 

at,  54. 

Helo'ise,  Rousseau's,  247. 
Helots,  in  Sparta,  72. 
Herbart,  Johann  Friedrich,  enters  Gym- 
nasium at  Oldenburg,  283. 

in  Bremen  and  Switzerland,  283. 

life  of,  282. 

literary  activity  of,  285. 

on  importance  of  common  schools,  291. 

pedagogy  of,  286. 

practice  school  at  Konigsberg,  284. 

professor  of  philosophy  at  Konigsberg, 
284. 

student  of  Fichte,  283. 

teacher  in  Switzerland,  283. 
Herbartians,  work  of  modern,  286,  322. 
Herbartian  movement,  333. 
Herford,  on  Froebel,  280. 
Hesse-Cassel,  active  in  school  work,  207. 
Hesse-Darmstadt,  active  in  school  work, 

207. 
Hieroglyphics,   Rosetta   stone   furnishes 

key  to  interpretation  of,  51. 
High  Schools,  connected  with  common 
in  France,  303. 

in  United  States,  317,  325. 
Higher  education,  among  Jews,  48. 

in  American  colonies,  324. 

in  China,  26. 

in  Egypt,  54. 

in  India,  38. 

in  Rome,  81. 

Hindu  education,  criticism  of,  38,  39. 
Hindus.     See  India. 


History,  a  factor  in  education,  16. 

natural,  taught  in  Jewish  schools,  47. 

Neander  favors  study  of,  183. 

taught  in  Roman  schools,  82. 

taught  in  schools  of  prophets,  48. 
Holstein,  active  in  school  work,  207. 
Holy  Land,  of  Greece,  at  Olympia,  59. 

pilgrimages  to,  140. 
Home,  foundation  of  education,  17. 

in  Athens,  61. 

in  China,  23. 

in  Egypt,  53. 

in  India,  36. 

in  Persia,  41. 

in  Rome,  80. 

in  Sparta,  73. 

of  Jews,  45. 
Home  training,  among  early  Christians, 

98. 

Horace,  Roman  poet,  78. 
Horn  book,  323. 
How  Gertrude  teaches  her  Children,  Pes- 

talozzi's,  271. 
Humanism,  art  of  printing  aids,  154. 

decline  of,  202. 

in  Germany,  161. 

in  Italy,  153-iSS- 

Petrarch  founder  of,  160. 
Humanistic  educators,  159-167. 

Agricola,  162. 

Boccaccio,  161. 

Dante,  159. 

Erasmus,  161. 

German,  161-167. 

Italian,  160,  161. 

mission  of,  159. 

Petrarch,  160. 

Reuchlin,  163. 

Humanities,  studied  in  Jesuit  schools,  189. 
Hunziker,  Professor,  on  Pestalozzi,  271. 
Hurst,  Bishop,  on  Melanchthon,  175. 
Huss,  reformer,  169. 

Ilfeld,  Neander's  school  at,  183. 
Iliad  and  Odyssey,  73. 
Illustrated  text-books,  first,  219,  233. 
Illustration,  teaching  by,  102. 
India,  33-39. 

Brahminism  and  Mohammedanism  in, 
35- 

Buddha,  39. 

caste  system  in,  34. 

criticism  of  education  in,  38. 

elementary  schools  in,  36-38. 

English  reforms  in,  35. 

geography  and  history  of,  33. 

higher  education  in,  38. 

home  in,  36. 


INDEX 


365 


India  —  Continued. 

motive  for  education  in,  56. 

polygamy  in,  35. 

religious  ceremonies  in  schools,  37. 

schoolhouses  described,  37. 

skill  of  craftsmen  in,  34,  35. 

status  of  woman  in,  35. 
Individual,  education  for,  95. 
Individuality,  of  children,  92. 
Inductive  method,  Bacon's,  211,  233. 
Industrial  School,  Pestalozzi  establishes, 

266. 
Infant  school  (ecole  infantine)  in  France, 

302. 
Innocent  III.,  Pope,  recognizes  Univer* 

sity  of  Paris,  145. 

Inquiries   concerning    Course    of  Nature 
in  Development  of  Mankind,  Pesta- 
lozzi's,  273. 
Inspector,  in  German  schools,  294,  295. 

Royal,  in  English  school  system,  309. 
Institutes  of  Oratory,  Quintilian's,  91. 
Institutions  at  Halle,  238. 
Instruction,  method  of,  in  India,  37. 
Introduction,  15-19. 
Inventions,  Chinese,  27. 

during  Renaissance,  152. 
Isaiah,  founder  of  Hebrew  literature,  48. 
Israel.     See  Jews. 
Italy,  humanism  in,  153-157. 

intellectual  movement  in,  156. 

Jansenists,  introduce  phonic  spelling,  193. 

purpose  of,  192. 

services  to  education,  193. 
Jena,  center  of  Herbartian  activity,  283, 

286. 

Jerome  of  Prague,  reformer,  169. 
Jerusalem,    Latin    Kingdom   established 
at,  141. 

pilgrimages  to,  140. 

school  of  rabbis  at,  48. 
Jesuits,  criticism  of  education,  190. 

education  of,  188. 

emulation  as  an  incentive,  190. 

founding  of  order,  186,  187. 

growth  of  society,  188. 

Loyola,  187. 

military  character  of  order,  187. 

opposition  of  Port  Royalists  to,  193. 

school  system  of,  187-192,  203. 

spread  of  power,  188. 

summary  of  educational  work,  192, 193. 
Jews,  44-49- 

compulsory  education  among,  46. 

criticism  of  education,  48. 

education  in  home,  17. 

esteem  of  teachers,  47. 


Jews  —  Continued.     -, 

geography  and  history,  44,  45. 

higher  education  among,  48. 

home  of,  45. 

mission  of,  44. 

motive  for  education  of,  56. 

prophets,  48. 

religion  of,  45,  46. 

schools  of,  46. 

schools  of  the  prophets,  48. 

schools  of  the  rabbis,  48. 

status  of  women,  45. 

the  Talmud,  49. 

theocratic  education  of,  44. 

training  of  children,  45,  46. 
Johnson,  Dr.,  on  Ascham's  Schylemaster, 

194,  195- 
Justinian,  abolishes  pagan  schools,  119. 

Kant,  Emanuel,  quoted,  258,  259,  285. 
Keilhau,  Froebel's  school  at,  279. 
Kepler,  astronomical  discoveries  of,  206. 
Kindergarten,  Froebel  founder  of,  280. 

in  Prussia,  279. 

in  Switzerland,  280. 

in  United  States,  281,  316. 

prohibited,  279. 

purpose  of,  281 . 
Knight,  chivalry  of,  137. 

education  of,  137. 

seven  perfections  of,  137. 
Knowledge,  defined  by  Confucius,  30. 
Konigsberg,  Herbart  teaches  philosophy 
at,  284. 

practice  school  at,  285. 
Koran,  Mohammed  writes,  147. 

used  as  reading  book,  149. 
Kriisi,  Hermann,  on  Pestalozzi,  264,  265, 
269,  270. 

on  the  sacrifices  of  Babeli,  261. 

Pestalozzi  founds  school  with,  271. 

La  Salle,  Conduct  of  Schools,  232. 

organizes   Brothers   of   the    Christian 
Schools,  231. 

services  to  education,  232. 

simultaneous  method  introduced,  231. 
Laborers,  third  caste  in  Egypt,  53. 
Lancaster,    Joseph,     establishes    Board 
Schools,  311. 

monitorial  system  of,  311. 
Land  grants,  for  educational   purposes, 

314,  327- 
Lang,    on    Basedow's   Book   of  Method, 

259- 

Langethal,  Heinrich,  joins  Froebel,  279. 
Language,  Ascham's  method  for  study 

of,  195. 


366 


INDEX 


Language  —  Continued,. 
classic,  see  Latin,  Greek,  classic  lan- 
guages, double  translation  in  teach- 
ing, 203. 

in  pedagogy  of  Innovators,  208. 
modern  conversational  method,  201— 

203. 

taught  in  Egypt,  54. 
taught  in  Roman  schools,  82. 
Latin,  in  Locke's  system  of  education, 

226. 

in  Melanchthon's  course,  177. 
in  Milton's  pedagogy,  223. 
in  pedagogy  of  Innovators,  215. 
in  Sturm's  school  course,  180. 
in  Trotzendorf's  school  course,  192. 
revival  of  study,  155,  157. 
Latin  Kingdom,  established  at  Jerusa- 
lem, 141. 
Latin  Schools,  Strasburg  Gymnasium  the 

model  for,  180. 

Latin  text-books,  Neander's,  184. 
Latini,  Brunetto,  teacher  of  Dante,  159. 
Launcelot,  leader  of  Port  Royalists,  192. 
Laurie,  S.  S.,  quoted,  in,  143,  144. 
Law,  in  Milton's  scheme  of  education, 

224. 

studied  in  Egypt,  51. 
taught  in  Gymnasia,  297 . 
taught    in    schools   of    prophets    and 

rabbis,  48. 

Leibnitz,  on  Jesuit  schools,  191. 
Leipsic,  University  of,  185. 
Leonard  and  Gertrude,  Pestalozzi's,  267, 

268. 
Leopold  of  Dessau,  establishes  the  Phi- 

lanthropin,  255. 
Letters,  forms  and  names  to  be  learned 

simultaneously,  92. 
Library,  at  Alexandria,  1 1 1 . 

at  Pekin,  29. 

Liter ators,  in  charge  of  Roman  schools,  82. 
Literature,  Hebrew,  48. 

in  Athens  influences  world,  60. 
lack  of  Christian,  98. 
opposition  to  pagan,  98,  117,  119,  130. 
pilgrimages  to  Egypt  to  study,  51. 
Literatus,  teacher  of  Roman  school,  82. 
Local  school  board  in  Germany,  295. 
Loci  Communes,  Melanchthon's,  176. 
Locke,  John,  education  of,  224,  225. 
educational  works  of,  225. 
Essay  Concerning  Human  Understand- 
ing, 225. 

his  influence  on  education,  227. 
Montaigne's  influence  on,  199. 
reforms  of,  208. 
tutor  at  Christ  Church,  225. 


Logic,  in  monastic  education,  123. 

taught  in  Sturm's  school  course,  180. 
Lord's  Prayer,  taught  in  Charlemagne's 

reign,  132. 

Louis  VII.  of  France,  leads  second  cru- 
sade, 141. 

Loyola,  founds  Jesuit  order,  1 87 . 
Lucretius,  78. 

compared  with  Rabelais,  194,  195. 
Lund,  university  at,  145. 
Luther,     Martin,     Augustinian     monk, 

172. 

contrasted  with  Erasmus,  166. 
educational  reforms  of,  170. 
influence  of,  18. 

lays  foundation  of  German  school  sys- 
tem, 173. 

leader  German  Reformation,  169. 
life  and  struggles  of,  171. 
pedagogy  of,  173. 
professor  at  Wittenberg,  172. 
Reuchlin  on,  164. 
summoned    before   Diet   of    Worms, 

172. 

translates  Bible,  172. 
work  marked  out  by,  179. 
Lutheran  churches,   schools  in  connec- 
tion with,  185. 
Lyceum  at  Athens,  founded  by  Aristotle, 

70. 
Lycurgus,  influence  in  Sparta,  77. 

laws  of,  76. 
Lyons,  cloister  school  at,  122. 

Macaulay,  Lord,  on  Bacon,  209,  212. 
Magi,  Persian  priests,  41,  42. 
Mainz,  university  at,  145. 
Malone,  John,  on  Chrysostom,  109. 
Mann,  Horace,  Annual  Reports,  290. 

at  Brown  University,  289. 

at  Litchfield,  289. 

educational  campaign  of,  290. 

life  of,  284,  289. 

on  common  schools,  289. 

president  of  Antioch  College,  292. 

Secretary  of  State  Board  of  Education, 
290. 

services  to  education,  292. 

statesman,  289,  292. 
Manual  and  industrial  training,  335. 
Manual    training   school,    Locke    advo- 
cates, 224. 
Maps,  early,  124. 

Marenholtze-Bulow,   Bertha  von,   disci- 
ple of  Froebel,  291. 
Mariner's  compass  invented,  152. 
Marriage,  Christ's  teaching  on,  95. 

controlled  by  State  in  Sparta,  77. 


INDEX 


367 


Martel,  Charles,  checks  Mohammedan- 
ism, 148. 

Martial  training,  in  Sparta,  73—75. 
Martin,  on  work  of  Horace  Mann,  290. 
Massachusetts,  new  epoch  in  educational 
history,  289. 

normal  schools  established  in,  291. 
Mathematics,  central  idea  of  Pythago- 
rean system,  77. 

discoveries  of  Hindus,  39. 

taught  in  Egypt,  63. 

taught  in  Mohammedan  schools,  149. 
Matthison,  leader  of  Philanthropin,  258. 
Mecca,  Mohammed's  flight  from,  147. 

pilgrimages  to,  149. 
Mechanics,  third  caste  in  Egypt,  51,  52. 

third  caste  in  India,  34. 
Mechlenburg,  active  in  school  work,  207. 
Medical  inspection  of  schools,  338. 
Medicine,  in  Milton's  scheme  of  educa- 
tion, 213. 

taught  in  Egypt,  54. 

taught  in  Gymnasium,  297. 

taught  in  schools  of  prophets,  48. 
Medina,  Mohammed  flees  to,  147. 
Melanchthon,  Philipp,  colaborer  of  Lu- 
ther, 174,  175. 

early  life  and  studies  of,  175. 

educational  work  of,  176,  177. 

first  Protestant  psychologist,  177. 

Greek  professor  at  Wittenberg,  175. 

lectures  at  Tubingen,  175. 

Loci  Communes,  176. 

Saxony  school  plan,  176,  177. 

service  to  schools,  176. 

text-books,  176. 

work  marked  out  by,  179. 
Memory,  cultivation  of,  in  Chinese  edu- 
cation, 25. 

in  Cicero's  pedagogy,  88. 

in  Fenelon's  pedagogy,  230. 

in  humanistic  education,  167. 

in  India,  36-^38. 
Memphis,  institution  for  higher  learning 

at,  54. 

Merchants,  third  caste  in  India,  34. 
Methodists,  purpose  of,  235. 
Middendorf,  Wilhelm,  joins  Froebel,  279. 
Middle  Ages,  progress  during,  150,  151. 
Military  class,  in  Egypt,  52. 
Military  schools,  in  China,  31. 
Military  training,  in  Persia,  42. 

in  Sparta,  73. 
Milton,  John,  defines  education,  221. 

reforms  of,  208. 

scheme  of  education,  223,  224. 

teacher,  222. 

Tractate,  222. 


Mines,  schools  of,  in  France,  303. 
Minister  of  education  in  France,  294. 
Minnesingers,  compositions  of,  139. 
Missionary  enterprise  in  India,  36. 
Model  school  at  Frankfurt-am-Main,  277. 
Modern  educators,  245-318. 

Basedow,  254-260. 

Froebel,  276-281. 

Herbart,  282-287. 

Mann,  28_3~29O. 

Pestalozzi,  261,  275. 

Rousseau,  245-253. 
Mohammed,  flight  of,  147. 

precepts  of,  148,  149. 

spread  of  doctrines  of,  148. 

writes  Koran,  147. 
Mohammedan  education,  147-151. 

five  Moslem  precepts,  148. 

history  of  Mohammedanism,  147-149. 

scientific  progress  made,  149. 
Mohammedanism,  history  of,  147-149. 

in  India,  34. 

Monasteries,    Alfred    the    Great    estab- 
lishes, 135. 

benefits  to  civilization  by,  1 24. 

center  of  educational  activity,  150. 

center  of  religious  interest,  124. 

power  of,  1 20. 

services  to  education,  106. 

suppress  scientific  discoveries,  122, 123. 
Monastic  education,  120—124. 
Monitorial  System,  defined,  311. 
Montaigne,  education  of,  200. 

Essays,  201. 

influence  on  Locke,  227. 

pedagogy  of,  199,  201,  202. 
Montanists,  teachings  of,  117. 
Monte  Cassino,  monastery  at,  121,  122. 
Montessori  Method,  343. 
Moravian  Brethren,  Comenius  member 

of,  215,  217. 
Moravian  School,  Comenius  teacher  of, 

216. 

Moses  founder  of  Hebrew  literature,  48. 
Moslemism.     See  Mohammedanism. 
Mother-school      (ecole      maternclle)      in 

France,  302. 
Motive  of  education,  among  Jews,  56. 

in  Athens,  63. 

in  China,  31,  54. 

in  Egypt,  56. 

in  India,  38,  56. 

in  Persia,  42,  56. 

in  Rome,  84. 

in  Sparta,  73,  77. 
Music,  cultivation  of,  among  Jews,  46. 

during  Charlemagne's  reign,  132. 

in  Athens,  62,  63. 


368 


INDEX 


Music  —  Continued,. 
in  Egypt,  54- 

in  monastic  education,  123. 
in  Sparta,  75. 
in  Sturm's  school  course,  180. 

Nantes,  university  at,  145. 

Napoleon,  quoted,  101. 

National  Bureau  of  Education,  in  United 

States,  313,  314,  330. 
National  Educational  Association,  329. 
National   Herbart   Society   in    America, 

286. 

National   Schools,    Andrew   Bell   estab- 
lishes, 309. 
Nature  study,  Christ  advocates,  103. 

inductive  methods  lead  to,  212. 
Navigation,  in  Milton's  scheme  of  edu- 
cation, 223. 
Neander,  Michael,  teacher  at  Ilfeld,  183. 

text-books,  of,  184. 
Nero,  pupil  of  Seneca,  88. 
Neuhof,  Pestalozzi's  experiment  at,  265, 

266. 

New  England  Primer,  323. 
Nicole,  leader  of  Port  Royalists,  192. 
Nile,  importance  to  Egypt,  50. 

inundations     encourage     mathemati- 
cal study,  54. 

Nineteenth   century   education,   general 
view,    240-244.     See   also    Modern 
Educators  and  School  Systems. 
Nisibis,  catechetical  school  at,  1 1 1 . 
Nitric  acid  discovered,  149. 
Normal   schools,    first  in  America,  328. 
in  England,  318. 
in  France,  301,  304,  305. 
in  Germany,  294,  298. 
in  Massachusetts,  291. 
in  United  States,  318 
La  Salle  establishes  first,  232. 
teachers  appointed  in,  294. 
Novum  Organum,  Bacon's,  211. 

Obedience,  cardinal  Chinese  virtue,  27. 
Object  teaching,  beginning  of,  270. 

of  Jansenists,  193. 

Pestalozzi's,  274. 

Occam,  leader  of  scholasticism,  126. 
Occupation,  a  factor  in  education,  20. 
Odessa,  catechetical  school  at,  1 1 1 . 

first    Christian    common    school    at, 

IOQ. 

Olympia,  Holy  Land  of  Greece,  59. 
Olympiad,  basis  for  computing  time,  59. 
Olympian  games,  influence  and  charac- 
ter of,  58,  59. 
Orations  of  Cicero,  86,  87. 


Oratory,  ideal  of  education  in  Rome,  81, 
82,  84. 

Quintilian's  views  regarding,  91. 
Orbis  Piclus,  Comenius's  first  illustrated 

text-book,  218,  219. 
Order  of  Jesus.     Sec  Jesuits. 
Oriental  civilization,  basis  of,  93. 
Oriental  education,  aim  of,  95. 

summary  of,  55,  56. 
Origen,  character  of,  1 14. 

education  of,  114. 

pedagogy  of,  114. 

service  to  education,  105. 
Orleans,  university  at,  145. 
Ormuzd,  principle  of  light  in  Persian 

religion,  43. 
Orphan  asylum,  at  Halle,  founded,  237, 

238. 
Oxford,  cloister  school  at,  122. 

Locke  tutor  at,  225. 

University  of,  135,  145. 

Pagan  education,  conflict  with  Christian, 

115-119- 
Pagan  literature,  opposition  to,  98,  117, 

119,  124. 
Pantaenus,       establishes       catechetical 

school,  in. 

Pantagruel,  Rabelais's,  197. 
Paper,  invented,  152. 
Paradise  Lost,  Milton's,  221. 
Parents'  meetings,  334. 
Paris,  cloister  school  at,  122. 

university  at,  128,  144,  145. 
Parker,  Colonel,  on  Horace  Mann,  288, 

290,  323. 
Parliamentary  grants  for  school  expenses, 

310. 

Parochial  schools,  143  n. 
Pascal,  leader  of  Port  Royalists,  192. 
Pastor,      superintendent     of      German 

schools,  185. 

Paul,  services  to  education,  106. 
Paul  III.,  Pope,  recognizes  Jesuits,  187. 
Paulsen,  on  John  Sturm,  179,  180,  181. 

on  Neander's  text-books,  184. 
Pedagogium,    established    by    Francke, 

238,  240. 
Pedagogue,  duty  of,  in  Athens,  60,  62. 

in  Rome,  81. 

Pedagogy,  begins  with  history  of  educa- 
tion, 19. 

elevated  to  dignity  of  a  science,  286. 
of  Agricola,  162. 
of  Alfred  the  Great,  135. 
of  Aristotle,  70,  71. 
of  Ascham,  194-196. 
of  Bacon,  211-213. 


INDEX 


369 


Pedagogy  —  Continued. 

of  Basedow,  255-260. 

of  Basil  the  Great,  no. 

of  Benedictines,  122,  123. 

of  Boccaccio,  161. 

of  Charlemagne,  131-133. 

of  Christ,  95,  101-104. 

of  Chrysostom,  109. 

of  Cicero,  87. 

of  Clement  of  Alexandria,  113. 

of  Comenius,  218-221. 

of  Confucius,  31. 

of  Dante,  160. 

of  Erasmus,  166,  167. 

of  Fenelon,  230,  231. 

of  Feudalism,  136-139. 

of  Francke,  238-240. 

of  Froebel,  279-281,  344. 

of  Herbart,  286,  287,  333. 

of  Humanists,  157. 

of  Innovators,  208. 

of  Jesuits,  188-192. 

of  La  Salle,  231,  232. 

of  Locke,  225-227. 

of  Loyola,  187. 

of  Luther,  173. 

of  Mann,  289-292. 

of  Melanchthon,  176. 

of  Milton,  222,  223. 

of  Mohammedans,  149. 

of  Montaigne,  190-202. 

of  Montessori,  343. 

of  Neander,  183-185. 

of  Origen,  114. 

of  Pestalozzi,  273-275.  ' 

of  Petrarch,  155. 

of  Plato,  67-69. 

of  Port  Royalists,  193. 

of  Pythagoras,  77. 

of  Quintilian,  91 . 

of  Rabelais,  198,  199. 

of  Ratke,  215. 

of  Reuchlin,  164. 

of  Rousseau,  247-253. 

of  St.  Augustine,  119. 

of  Scholastics,  128. 

of  Seneca,  89. 

of  Socrates,  66. 

of  Sturm,  180,  181. 

of  Tertullian,  117. 

of  Trotzendorf,  182,  183. 
Pekin,  royal  library  at,  26. 
Pendulum,  applied  to  reckon  time,  149. 
Pensions  to  teachers,  in  England,  312. 

in  France,  306. 

in  Germany,  298. 
Pericles,  Age  of,  58,  61. 

Athenian  statesman,  60. 


Perioeci,  in  Sparta,  72. 
Persia,  40,  43. 

criticism  of  education,  42. 

geography  and  history,  40. 

home,  religion  in,  41. 

military  education  in,  20,  42. 

motive  for  education  in,  56. 

state  education  in,  41,  42. 

status  of  women  in,  41 . 

training  of  children  in,  41. 

Zoroaster,  43. 

Persian  education,  criticism  of,  42. 
Pestalozzi,   Johann   Heinrich,   childhood 
and  character,  261,  262. 

Christian  ministry,  263. 

failures  of,  263,  264,  266. 

farming,  264. 

influence  of,  22. 

law,  264. 

lesson  of  love  taught  by,  275. 

marriage,  265. 

Neuhof,  experiences  at,  266. 

object  teaching  of,  193. 

pedagogy  of,  273,  275. 

purposes  of,  263. 

school  at  Burgdorf,  270. 

school  at  Stanz,  268,  269. 

school  at  Yverdon,  271,  272. 

schooling  of,  262. 

unites  with  Kriisi,  271. 

work  of,  273. 

writings  of,  267,  268. 
Peter  the  Hermit,  crusade  of,  140. 
Petrarch,  father  of  humanism,  159,  160. 

influence  of,  155-157. 

lays  foundation  of  modern  education, 

161. 

Pfefferkorn,    John,    antagonism   to    He- 
brew works,  164. 
Phaedo,  Plato's,  67. 
Philanthropin,  established,  255. 

failure  of,  256-258. 

purpose  of,  256. 

Philip  Augustus,  of  France,  aids  univer- 
sity at  Paris,  145. 

leads  third  crusade,  141. 
Philippics,  of  Cicero,  86. 
Philosophical  discoveries,  of  Hindus,  39. 
Philosophy,  in  Athens,  63. 

in  catechetical  schools,  112. 

in  Egypt,  51. 

in  gymnasium,  297. 

in  Jesuit  schools,  189. 

in  Mohammedan  schools,  149. 

in  Roman  schools,  82. 

in  schools  of  prophets,  48. 

natural,  in  Milton's  scheme  of  educa- 
tion, 223. 


370 


INDEX 


Philosophy  —  Continued,. 

of  Christ,  1 02. 

scholasticism,  128. 

Phoenicians,  invent  alphabet,  glass  mak- 
ing, and  purple  dyeing,  55. 
Phonic  method  of  spelling,  introduced, 

193- 

Physical  education,  in  Aristotle's  scheme, 
70. 

in  Athens,  62. 

in  Erasmus's  scheme,  167. 

in  Fenelon's  scheme,  230. 

in  Feudalism,  137,  139. 

in  Innovators'  scheme,  208. 

in  Locke's  scheme,  225,  233. 

in  Luther's  scheme,  174. 

in  Milton's  scheme,  224. 

in  Persia,  42. 

in  Pestalozzi's  scheme,  267. 

in  Plato's  scheme,  68,  69. 

in  Rome,  81. 

in  Rousseau's  scheme,  248. 

in  Sparta,  74. 
Pietism,  influence  of,  236. 

purpose  of,  235. 
Plato,  Athenian  philosopher,  60. 

disciple  of  Socrates,  67. 

first  systematic  scheme  of  education, 
69. 

founds  school  at  Athens,  67. 

republic,  67. 

State  to  have  control  of  citizens,  68. 

testimony  to  Socrates,  66. 
Play,  educational  force  in  Athens,  61, 
64. 

in  F6nelon's  pedagogy,  230. 

in  Froebel's  system,  278. 
Poetry,  in  Athens,  61,  63. 

in  Roman  schools,  82. 

in  schools  of  prophets,  48. 
Poitiers,  university  at,  145. 
Political  freedom  of  Greeks,  58. 
Political  rights,  extension  of,  243. 
Polygamy,  in  China,  26. 

in  Egypt,  53. 

in  India,  35. 

Polytechnic  schools,  in  China,  31. 
Port  Royalists,  purpose  of,  193. 

services  to  education,  203. 
Practical  training  of  Roman  children,  83. 
Practice  school,  at  Jena,  285. 

at  Konigsberg,  284. 

Herbart's,  284. 
Prague,  battle  of,  216. 

university  established  at,  128,  145. 
Praise  of  Folly,  Erasmus's,  166. 
Prerau,  Moravian  School  at,  216. 
Priests,  influence  in  Egypt,  51,  52. 


Primary     education.     See     Elementary 

Education. 
Printing,  invented,  30,  152. 

influence  on  universal  education,  154, 

168,  169. 

Printing  press,  invented,  152. 
Privat  Docent,  in  German  universities, 

236  w.  2. 

Progymnasia,  in  Germany,  296  w. 
Pronunciation,  in  Roman  education,  80, 

82. 

Prophets,  schools  of,  48. 
Prorealgymnasia,  296  n. 
Protestant  educators,  178-185. 
Gymnasium  at  Strasburg,  179. 
Melanchthon's  course  of  study,  178. 
Neander,  183. 
Sturm,  179. 
Trotzendorf,  182.    See  also  Humanistic 

Educators  and  Reformation. 
Protestant  Reformation,  169-177. 
Protestantism,  spirit  of,  among  common 

people,  204. 

spread  of,  checked,  186. 
Protogenes,  establishes  school  at  Odessa, 

109. 

Provinces,  thirteen  royal,  school  admin- 
istration in,  294. 

Prussia,  kindergarten  in,  279,  280. 
school  system  of,  132,  293-299. 
Psalms,    translated    into    Anglo-Saxon, 

135- 

Ptolemaic  system  of  astronomy,  152. 
Ptolemies,  found  Alexandrian  library,  54. 
Public  schools,  first  Christian,  109,  in. 
in  England,  310. 
in  France,  302. 
in  Germany,  297. 
in  Massachusetts,  290. 
in  Rome,  82. 
in  United  States,  317. 
Quintilian  advocates,  92. 
Punishment,  Basil  the  Great's  views  re- 
garding, no. 

Cicero's  views  regarding,  87. 
Fenelon's  views  regarding,  230. 
in  Jesuit  schools,  190. 
Montaigne's  views  regarding,  200,  201. 
Quintilian 's  views  regarding,  91. 
Seneca's  views  regarding,  89. 
See  also  Corporal  Punishment. 
Pupil  teachers,  311. 
Pupils,  number  assigned  to  one  teacher 

among  Jews,  47. 
number  of,  fixed  by  State  in  Athens, 

62. 

Puritans,     struggles     with     established 
church,  204. 


INDEX 


371 


Pythagoras,  life  of,  77. 
mathematical  system  of,  77. 
philosophy  of,  77. 

Quadrivium,    second    course    in    seven 

liberal  arts,  122,  123. 
Quick,  on  Ascham,  196. 

on  Basedow's  system,  258. 

on  demands  of  Reformers,  208. 

on  Jesuit  education,  190,  191. 

on  Milton, -22 2. 

on  Pestalozzi,  262,  272,  273,  274. 

on  Ratke,  213,  215. 

on  Rousseau's  hatred  of  books,  245. 

on  the  Philanthropin,  255,  256. 
Quincy  Movement,  the,  331. 
Quintilian,  education  and  life  of,  90. 

founds  school  at  Rome,  90. 

Institutes  of  Oratory,  91. 

pedagogy  of,  91. 

receives  title  of  Professor  of  Oratory, 
90. 

works  of,  studied  in  monastic  educa- 
tion, 123. 

Rabbis,  schools  of,  48. 
Rabelais,  compared  with  Lucretius,  198, 
199. 

friend  of  Calvin,  197. 

Gargantua  and  Pantagruel,  197. 

influence  of  Locke  on,  227. 

introduces     realism    into     education, 
198. 

life  of,  196,  197. 

pedagogy  of,  198. 
Ramadan,  fast  of,  148. 
Ramsauer,    on    Pestalozzi's    method    of 

teaching,  270. 

Ratio  Sludiorum,  of  Jesuits,  190. 
Ratke,  method  of  teaching  language,  213, 
214. 

pedagogy  of,  215. 

reforms  of,  208. 
Raurner,  on  Comenius,  217. 
Reading,  in  Athenian  schools,  62. 

in  Chinese  schools,  25. 

in  Jewish  schools,  47. 

in  monastic  schools,  123. 

in  Persian  schools,  42. 

in  Roman  schools,  82. 

in  schools  of  India,  36. 

not  taught  in  Sparta,  75. 

taught    during    Charlemagne's    reign, 
132. 

taught  by  Quintilian,  92. 
Real-school  in  Germany,  course  in,  297. 

founded,  240. 
Realgymnasia,  296  n. 


Realism,  in  education,  198. 
Reformation,   as  an   educational     influ- 
ence, 168-178,  203. 

conditions  at   beginning   of   sixteenth 
century,  168. 

instills  love  for  religious  liberty,  204. 

intellectual  conditions,  170. 

invention  of  printing,  169. 

Luther,  171-173. 

Melanchthon,  174-177. 

spread  of  educational  ideas  of,  184. 
Registration,  book  of,  in  French  schools, 

303- 
Reichstag,    school   interests  represented 

in,  294. 

Rein,  Professor  Wilhelm,  chief  exponent 
of  Ziller  school,  285. 

on  Herbart's  pedagogy,  282,  286. 

practice  school  under,  285. 
Religion,  center  of  school  course,  185. 

Chinese,  22. 

Christian.     See  Christianity. 

in  Egypt,  52,  54. 

in  India,  35,  39. 

in  Milton's  scheme  of  education,  223. 

in  Persia,  41,  43. 

of  Jews,  45,  46,  49. 

of  Romans,  79. 

taught  in  Sturm's  school  course,  181. 
Religious  freedom  attained,  205,  244. 
Religious  instruction,  Cicero  advocates, 
88. 

in  Egypt,  54. 

in  German' schools,  174. 

Rousseau's  views  regarding,  251,  252. 

See  also  Christian  education. 
Removal  of    teachers,   causes  for,   298, 

305- 
Renaissance,  152-177. 

denned,  1 5 2, Try.— 

humanistic  movement,  153-167. 

influence  on  Teutonic  race,  153. 

inventions  and  discoveries  during,  153, 

154- 

revival  of  classics,  154. 
universal    education    advocated,    154, 

155- 
Reuchlin,  humanistic  leader,  157. 

introduces  Greek  into  Germany,  164. 

professor  at  Tubingen,  163. 

services  to  Hebrew  learning,  163. 

teacher  of  Melanchthon,  175. 
Revival  of  learning.     See  Renaissance. 
Revolution,   American,   lessons  of,    243. 

French,  243,  268. 

of  1688,  204. 

Rheims,  first  normal  school  established 
at,  232. 


372 


INDEX 


Rhetoric,  in  Athenian  schools,  63. 

in  catechetical  schools,  112. 

in  monastic  education,  123. 

in  Sturm's  school  course,  180. 

the  climax  of  education,  92. 
Richard  the  Lion-Hearted,  leads  third 

crusade,  141. 
Rod,  discipline  of,  in  China,  28. 

Montaigne's  opposition  to,  200,  201. 

used  in  Roman  schools,  82. 
Rollin,  reforms  of,  208. 
Roman  church,  duty  of,  to  education,  186. 
Roman  educators,  85-92. 

Cicero,  85-88. 

Quintilian,  90-92. 

Seneca,  88-90. 
Rome,  78-84. 

Age  of  Augustus,  78,  79. 

birth  of  Christ,  78. 

criticism  of  education,  84. 

education  in,  81-83. 

educators  of,  85-92. 

government  in,  79. 

home  in,  80. 

home  training  of  children,  80,  81 . 

influence  of  Greek  culture  on,  78. 

oratory  highest  art  in  education,  81, 
84. 

persecution  of  Christians,  98. 

philosophers  from,   visit  Museum  of 
Alexandria,  54,  55. 

practical  training  of  children,  83. 

religion  of,  79. 

supremacy  of,  78. 

utility  the  aim  of  education,  83. 

woman's  status  in,  94. 
Rosetta  stone,  furnishes  key  to  interpre- 
tation of  hieroglyphics,  51. 
Rostock,  University  of,  145. 
Rote  learning,  in  Chinese  schools,  25. 
Rouen,  cloister  school  at,  122. 
Roundheads,  struggles  with  cavaliers,  204. 
Rousseau,  Jean  Jacques,  Emile,  248—252. 

influenced  by  Montaigne,  109,  200. 

life  of,  245,  246. 

on  Christ,  101. 

on  education  of  women,  252. 

pedagogy  of,  247. 

Pestalozzi  applies  principles  of,    273, 
274- 

scheme  of  education    as  outlined  in 
Entile,  248-252. 

works  of,  247. 

Rugby,  college  founded  at,  178,  310. 
Russia,  serfs  freed  in,  242. 

St.  Augustine.     See  Augustine,  St. 
St.  Gall,  cloister  school  at,  122,  124. 


Saint-Simon,  on  Fe'nelon,  228. 
Saladin,  captures  Jerusalem,  141. 
Salaries  of  teachers,  in  England,  312. 

in  France,  304,  306. 

in  Germany,  299. 

in  United  States,  318. 
Salerno,  university  at,  144. 
Sallust,  Roman  writer,  78. 
Salzburg,  cloister  school  at,  122. 
Salzmann,  leader  of  Philanthropin,  258. 
Sanskrit,  language  of  India,  34,  38. 
Saracens,  conquer  Holy  Land,  140. 

schools  of,  144. 
Saxony  School  Plan,  principles  of,  176, 

177,  178,  181. 

Schmidt,  Karl,   on    Alfred    the    Great, 
134- 

on  Aristotle,  71. 

on  corruption  of  the  church,  155. 

on  culture,  47. 

on  emancipation  of  the  individual,  56. 

on  history  of  humanity,  19,  20. 

on  Johann  Sturm,  181. 

on  St.  Augustine's  Confessions,  118. 

on  scholasticism,  127. 

of  teachings  of  Jesus  Christ,  101,  104. 

on  the  Emile,  253. 
Scholasticism,  benefits  of,  127,  128. 

defined,  125. 

downfall  of,  127. 

Scholemaster,  Roger  Ascham's,  194. 
School  attendance,  in  England,  310. 

in  France,  301,  302. 

in  Germany,  295,  296. 

in  United  States,  315,  316. 
School  board,  in  England,  309. 

in  France,  300. 

in  Germany,  294,  295. 

in  United  States,  314. 
School  fund  in  United  States,  313. 
School    government,    Trotzendorf's    re- 
forms in,  182,  183. 
School  hours,  in  Athens,  62,  64. 

in  Germany,  296. 
Schoolhouses  in  India,  37. 

public,  none  in  China,  27. 
School  inspector,  in  German  schools,  294. 
Schoolmaster,  German,  position  of,  299. 
"School    of    the    Palace,"    established, 

131- 
School  pence,  expense  of  English  schools 

met  by,  311. 

School  system,  Comenius's  organization 
of,  219. 

of  England,  308-312. 

of  France,  300-307. 

of  Germany,  293-299. 

of  United  States,  313-318. 


IKDEX 


373 


Schools,  apprentice  in  France,  303. 

catechetical,  in. 

catechumen,  108. 

cathedral,  143  n. 

charity,  in  China,  27. 

church,  1 06,  185. 

cloister,  122. 

common,  82,  9,2,  109,   in,  185,   290, 
291,  296,  297,  302,  317. 

elementary.    See  Elementary  Schools. 

established  in  Germany,  184. 

graduate,  in  United  States,  316. 

Gymnasium,  in  Germany,  297. 

high.     See  High  Schools. 

in  Athens,  under  state  inspection,  62, 
64. 

industrial,  for  poor,  266. 

infant,  in  France,  302. 

Jesuit,  187-192. 

Jewish,  46. 

manual  training,  226. 

Mohammedan,  149,  150. 

mother,  in  France,  302. 

national,  in  England,  309. 

normal.     See  Normal  Schools. 

of  mines,  in  France,  303. 

of  the  prophets,  48. 

of  the  rabbis,  48. 

pagan,  abolished,  119. 

parochial,  143  n. 

primary,  in  France,  302,  303. 

public.     See  Public  Schools. 

Real,  in  Germany,  240,  297. 

secondary,  In  United  States,  316. 

summer,  in  United  States,  317. 

support  of,  in  England,  310,  311. 

support  of,  in  France,  303,  304. 

support  of,  in  Germany,  297. 

support  of,  in  United  States,  317. 

teachers'  salaries  in.     See  Teaching. 

technical,  in  France,  303. 

undergraduate,  in  United  States,  316. 

voluntary,  in  England,  310. 
Schulthess,  Anna,  marries  Pestalozzi,  265. 
Schwegler,  on  number,  77. 

on  scholasticism,  1 26,  1 28. 
Schwickrath,    on  the     scholastics,    127. 

on  Luther,  187. 
Science,  among  ancient  Egyptians,  51. 

instrumental  in  civilization,  243. 

monastic  opposition  to,  1 20. 

natural,  Neander  favors  study  of,  183. 

natural,  taught  in  Egypt,  51,  54. 

Rabelais  gives  first  rank  to,  199. 
Scientific  discoveries,  results  of,  243. 
Scriptures,  Holy,  in  schools,  221. 
Secondary  schools,  in  United  States,  316. 
Secular  courses  of  study  established,  122. 


Self-government    of    students,    Trotzen- 
dorf  introduces,  182,  183. 

the  principle  established,  243. 
Seminar,  in  Germany,  285. 
Seneca,  compared  with  Fenelon,  229,  230. 

education  of,  88. 

pedagogy  of,  89. 

religious  sentiment  of,  89. 

suicide  of,  89. 

tutor  of  Nero,  88. 
Sense-realism,  Innovators  advocate,  228, 

233- 

Serapis,  temple  of,  library  in,  in,  112. 
Servants,  fourth  caste  in  India,  34. 

marriage  of,  36. 
Seven  liberal  arts,  122. 

basis  of  school  instruction,  131. 
Seventeenth  century,  education  during, 

204—240. 
Seventh  Annual  Report  of  Horace  Mann, 

291. 
Shaftesbury,    Earl    of,    friendship    with 

Locke,  225. 

Shastas,  commentary  on  Vedas,  35. 
Shrewsbury,  school  at,  310. 
Siculus  Diodorus,  Greek  writer,  51. 
Simultaneous  method,  inaugurated,  231. 
Sixteenth    century,    education    of,   168- 

203. 

Slavery,  abolition  of,  242. 
Slaves,  in  Athens,  60. 

in  Egypt,  53. 

in  Rome,  81. 

in  Sparta,  72. 

Sleep  of  children,  Locke's  rules  regard- 
ing, 225. 
Sobieski,    John,    checks    Mohammedan 

advance,  148. 

Social  Contract,  Rousseau's,  247. 
Socrates,  Athenian  philosopher,  60. 

death  of,  66,  67. 

dialectical  methods  of,  66. 

doctrines  of,  66. 

influence  of,  22. 

life  and  home  of,  65. 

methods  of  teaching,  66. 

personal  appearance  of,  65. 

religious  belief  of,  66. 
Solomon,  founder  of  Hebrew  literature, 

48. 

Solon,  Athenian  lawgiver,  61. 
Some    Thoughts    Concerning    Education, 

Locke's,  225. 
Songs,  church,  in. 
Songs  for  Mother  and  Nursery,  Froebel's, 

281. 

Sophists,  teachers  of  grammar,  63. 
Soroe,  Basedow,  professor  at,  255. 


374 


INDEX 


Sparta,  72—77. 

coeducation  in,  75. 

contrasted  with  Athens,  60. 

criticism  of  education,  75. 

history  of,  72. 

home  in,  73. 

Lycurgus,  76,  77. 

martial  training  in,  73,  74,  75. 

physical  education  in,  20. 

State  control  of  children,  73,  74,  77. 

status  of  woman  in,  73-75. 

tyranny,  the  spirit  of,  60. 
Spartan  education,  criticism  of,  75. 
Spelling,  phonic  method  introduced,  193. 
Spencer,  Herbert,  on  function  of  educa- 
tion, 221. 

Spener,  Philipp  Jakob,  originator  of  Pie- 
tism, 235. 

Stagira,  Aristotle  founds  school  at,  69. 
Stanz,  Pestalozzi's  school  at,  268. 
State,  assumes  responsibility  of  educa- 
tion in  Germany,  178. 

controls  citizens  in  Plato's  scheme  of 
education,  68. 

controls  education  in  Persia,  41,  42. 

controls  education  of  Spartan  children, 

74- 

controls  schools  in  Athens,  64. 
interest  of,  aim  of  oriental  education, 

95- 

supervises  English  schools,  310. 
supports  schools  in  France,  302. 
State  Board  of  Education,  duties  of,  315. 

established,  200. 
State  school  system,  in  United  States, 

3U,  342. 
State  support  of  public  instruction  in 

American  schools,  314. 
Stettin,  first  Prussian  normal  school  at, 

232. 
Stoy,  Karl  Volkmar,  establishes  practice 

school  at  Jena,  285. 
Strasburg,  Gymnasium,  organization  of, 

179,  1 80. 

Sturm,  rector  of,  179.  • 
Studio,  inferiora  and  superiors  of  Jesuit 

schools,  189. 
Sturm,  Johann,  education  of,  179. 

influence  of,  181. 

rector  at  Strasburg  Gymnasium,  179, 

1 80. 

school  course  of,  180,  181. 
Sulphuric  acid,  Arabians  discover,  149. 
Summer  school,  in  United  States  school 

system,  317. 
Superintendent  of  schools,  duties  of,  314, 

315,  342. 
Superstition  of  Romans,  80. 


Supervision  of  schools,  341. 
Support  of  schools,  in  England,  310. 

in  France,  303. 

in  Germany,  297. 

in  United  States,  317. 
Swinton,  on  antiquity  of  Egyptian  his- 
tory, 51. 

on  influence  of  Egyptian  priests,  52. 
Switzerland,  Herbart  in,  283. 

kindergarten  in,  280. 

Talich,  Hermann,  school  course  of,  180  «. 
Talmud,  extracts  from,  49,  50. 
influence  of,  49. 
on  discipline  of  children,  47. 
origin  of  sayings  in,  48. 
Tax  for  schools,  in  United  States,  317. 
Taylor,  Bayard,  on  Charles  V.,  Emperor 

of  Germany,  170. 
on  Thirty  Years'  War,  205. 
Teachers,  in  Athens,  62,  63. 
in  China,  27,  28. 
hi  Egypt,  53,  54. 
in  England,  239,  311,  318. 
in  France,  304-306. 
in  Germany,  294,  295,  297,  298. 
in  India,  36,  37,  38. 
in  Jesuit  schools,  189. 
in  Jewish  schools,  47. 
in  Mohammedan  schools,  150. 
in  Persia,  42. 
in  United  States,  317. 
professional  training  of,  167,  174,  192, 

232,  239,  284,  298,  311,  317^ 
salaries  of,  62,  63,  290,  299,  304-306, 

312,  317- 
tenure   of   office   of,    298,    306,    311, 

318. 
Teacher's  Institute,  in  United  States 

school  system,  317. 
Technical  schools,  in  France,  303. 
Telemachus,  Fenelon's,  229. 
Tenure  of  office  of  teachers,  in  England, 

3"- 

in  France,  306. 
in  Germany,  298. 
in  United  States,  318. 
Tertullian,  birth  of,  116. 
conversion  of,  116. 
founder  of  Christian  Latin  literature, 

117. 

joins  Montanists,  117. 
Testament,  Greek,  Erasmus's  translation, 

166. 
Testament,  Old,  books  of,  stimulated  by 

prophets,  48. 

Teutonic  nations,  leaders  in  civilization, 
107,  153. 


INDEX 


375 


Text-book,  first  illustrated,  219. 
Thales,  father  of  philosophy,  77. 
Thebes,  institution  for  higher  learning 

at,  54. 

Theocratic  education,  of  Jews,  44. 
Theology,  in  Gymnasium,  297. 
in  Jesuit  schools,  189. 
in  schools  of  rabbis,  48. 
Thirty  Years'  War,  205,  216. 
Toga  Virilis,  when  assumed,  83. 
Toulouse,  university  at,  145. 
Tours,  cloister  school  at,  122. 
Township  system  of  education,  in  United 

States,  315. 

Toys,  lack  of,  in  China,  27. 
of  Athenian  children,  61. 
of  Persians,  61. 
of  Spartans,  73. 
Tractate    on    Education,    Milton's,    221, 

222. 

Tradesmen's  castes,  in  India,  34. 
Tradespeople,  third  caste  in  Egypt,  52. 
Translation,  double,  for  language  study, 

196. 
Transmigration  of  souls,  Chinese  belief 

in,  22. 

Trier,  university  at,  145. 
Trigonometry,    in    Milton's  scheme  of 

education,  223. 

taught  by  Mohammedans,  149. 
Trivium,  first  course  in  seven  liberal  arts, 

122,  123. 
Trotzendorf,    Valentine,    discipline    and 

methods  of,  182. 
life  of,  182. 

pupil  of  Melanchthon,  182. 
rector  at  Goldberg,  182. 
Tubingen,   center  of  humanistic  move- 
ment, 157,  163. 
university  at,  145. 
Twelve  Tables,  of  Roman  Law,  80. 

Undergraduate  school,  in  United  States, 

316. 

Understanding,  development  of,  193. 
United  States,  administration  of  schools, 

3U- 

attendance  in  schools,  315. 
education  in,  313-318. 
land  grants  for  education,  313,  314. 
State  system,  313,  314. 
support  of  schools,  317. 
teachers,  317,  318. 

Universal  education,  advocated  by  Char- 
lemagne, 132,  135. 
German  schools,  135,  174. 
Universal  German  Educational  Institute, 
at  Griesheim,  279. 


Universities,  established  through  scho- 
lastic influence,  128. 

in  England,  310. 

in  United  States,  316,  317. 

preparation  for,  in  Germany,  297. 

privileges  granted  to,  146. 

rise  of,  143-146. 

services  of,  146. 

State,  in  France,  303. 
Upsala,  university  at,  145. 

Vasseur,  Therese  le,  wife  of  Rousseau, 

246. 
Veda,  Bible  of  India,  34. 

reading  lessons  from,  37. 
Vergil,  Roman  poet,  78. 
Vespasian,  honors  Quintilian,  90. 
Vienna,   university  established  at,   128, 

145- 

Vogel,  on  errors  of  Emile,  248. 

Volksschule  (common  school)  in  Ger- 
many, 296. 

Voltaire,  condemns  Jesuit  education,  191. 
on  Fenelon,  231. 

Voluntary  schools,  in  England,  309  «., 
310. 

Von  Moltke,  quoted,  299. 

Waldenses,  reformers  in  Italy,  169. 
War,  preparation  for,  chief  end  of  edu- 
cation in  Persia,  42. 

Warens,  Madame  de,  befriends  Rous- 
seau, 246. 

Warriors,  education  of,  38. 
marriage  of,  36. 
second  caste  in  India,  34. 
Weigel,  Erhard,  founds  Real-school,  240. 
Weimar,   Duke  of,  law  for  compulsory 

education,  207. 
Westminster,  school  at,  310. 
Williams,  Professor,  on  Comenius's  ser- 
vices to  pedagogy,  218. 
on  Locke,  227. 
on  Ratke,  213. 

on  Sturm's  school  course,  180,  181. 
Winchester,  school  at,  310. 
Winship,  Mr.,  on  Mann's  Seventh  An- 
nual Report,  291,  292. 
Wittenberg,  center  of  humanistic  studies, 

176. 

Luther  professor  at,  172. 
Women,  education  of,  among  Jews,  45. 
education    of,    during    Charlemagne's 

reign,  132. 

education  of,  in  Aristotle's  scheme,  71. 
education  of,  in  Athens,  64. 
education  of,  in  China,  51. 
education  of,  in  Egypt,  54. 


376 


INDEX 


Women  —  Continued,. 

education  of,  in  India,  39. 

education  of,  in  Persia,  42. 

education  of,  in  Rome,  84. 

education  of,  in  Sparta,  75. 

education  of,  Rousseau's  ideas  of,  252. 

improvement  in  culture  of,  94. 

Montaigne's  contempt  for,  202. 

status  of,  among  Jews,  45,  48. 

status  of,  among  oriental  nations,  94. 

status  of,  in  Athens,  62. 

status  of,  in  China,  23. 

status  of,  in  Egypt,  53,  55. 

status  of,  in  India,  35,  36,  39. 

status  of,  in  Persia,  41. 

status  of,  in  Rome,  80. 

status  of,  in  Sparta,  73,  75. 
Working    schools,    Locke    urges    estab- 
lishment of,  226. 
Writing,  during  Charlemagne's  reign,  132. 

in  Athens,  62. 

in  Chinese  schools,  25. 

in  Egypt,  54. 

in  India,  36,  37. 


Writing  —  Continued. 

in  Jewish  schools,  47. 

in  monastic  education,  123. 

in  Persian  schools,  42. 

in  Roman  schools,  82. 

neglected  in  Sparta,  75. 
Wurtemberg,  active  in  school  work,  207. 
Wiirzburg,  University  of,  145. 
Wuttke,  quoted,  38. 
Wyclif,  reformer,  169. 

Xantippe,  wife  of  Socrates,  65. 
Xenophon,  testimony  to  Socrates,  66. 

Yellow  Springs,  Antioch  College  at,  292. 
Yverdon,  Froebel  at,  278. 

Pestalozzi's  school  at,  271,  272. 

Zeus,  Olympian  festivals  in  honor  of,  59. 

Ziller  School,  286. 

Zoroaster,  dualistic  philosophy  of,  43. 

founder  of  Persian  religion,  43. 

religion  of,  in  Persia,  41. 
Zwingli,  Swiss  reformer,  169. 


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more  industrial  training.      The  book  is  broad  in  the  best  sense, 
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outside  world-  is  dealt  with  so  simply  and  convincingly  as  to 
be  clear  to  everybody,  whether  teachers  or  parents.      Only 
the  great  issues  of  education  are  considered. 


EDUCATION    THROUGH     MUSIC 

By  CHARLES  HUBERT  FARNSWORTH,  Adjunct  Pro- 
fessor of  Music,  Teachers  College,  Columbia  Univer- 
sity. $  i .  oo 


A  BOOK  for  grade  teachers  which  enables  them  to  teach 
music  in  their  schools  with  the  same  ease  and  success 
as  the  ordinary  branches  of  study.  Yet  it  is  no  less 
valuable  for  the  music  supervisor,  the  principal,  and  the  super- 
intendent, and  it  is  an  excellent  text  for  all  schools  in  which 
special  teachers  of  music  are  trained.  It  is  at  once  a  rule, 
a  guide,  and  an  inspiration,  and  points  out  the  place  of  music 
in  the  general  educational  scheme.  It  lays  out  the  work  step 
by  step  for  each  year  of  the  elementary  school,  and  never 
leaves  the  teacher  in  doubt  on  any  point.  The  methods  of 
presentation  are  applicable  to  any  music  course. 


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(201) 


STANDARD  WORKS  ON 
PEDAGOGY  AND  EDUCA- 
TION FOR  TEACHERS 

BURNS'S  How  TO  TEACH  READING  AND  COMPOSITION,  $0.50 
CHAMBERLAIN'S  STUDIES  IN  EDUCATION,  INCLUDING 

INDUSTRIAL  TRAINING I.oo 

DINSMORE'S  TEACHING  A  DISTRICT  SCHOOL  .  .  .  I.oo 
HEWETT'S  PEDAGOGY  FOR  YOUNG  TEACHERS  .  .  .  .85 

HINSDALE'S  ART  OF  STUDY •.  I.oo 

KING'S  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES I.oo 

MANN'S  SCHOOL  RECREATIONS  AND  AMUSEMENTS    .      .      I.oo 

PAGE'S  THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING  (Payne),      I.oo 

THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING  (Branson),      I.oo 

PAINTER'S  GREAT  PEDAGOGICAL  ESSAYS 1.25" 

REPORT  OF  THE  COMMITTEE  OF  TEN 30 

REPORT  OF  THE  COMMITTEE  OF  FIFTEEN 30 

ROARK'S  PSYCHOLOGY  IN  EDUCATION I.oo 

METHOD  IN  EDUCATION.      ...'...      I.oo 

ECONOMY  IN  EDUCATION I.oo 

SEELEY'S  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 1.25 

SHOUP'S  HISTORY  AND  SCIENCE  OF  EDUCATION       .     .      i.co 

SWETT'S  AMERICAN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS I.oo 

WHITE'S  ELEMENTS  OF  PEDAGOGY I.oo 

SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  ., I.oo 

ART  OF  TEACHING I.oo 

WINSHIP'S  GREAT  AMERICAN  EDUCATORS 50 

AMERICAN     BOOK     COMPANY 


EDUCATION     IN     THE 
UNITED     STATES 

Edited  by  NICHOLAS  MURRAY  BUTLER,  President 
of  Columbia  University,  in  the  City  of  New  York 

^2.50 


THE  frequently    expressed  need   for   a    book  giving    a 
complete  view  of  American  education  in  outline  is  satis- 
factorily met  in  this  volume  entitled  "Education  in  the 
United  States." 

^[  The  volume  consists  of  the  twenty  careful  monographs, 
each  written  by  an  eminent  specialist,  on  various  phases  of 
American  education,  which  were  originally  planned  as  part 
of  the  American  educational  exhibit  at  the  International  Ex- 
positions held  at  Paris  in  1900  and  at  St.  Louis  in  1904. 
^j  The  introduction  by  the  editor  sets  forth  the  underlying 
principles  governing  American  educational  activity  to  the 
present  time.  Among  the  authors  of  the  various  monographs 
are:  Commissioner  Draper  of  the  State  of  New  York,  the 
late  Dr.  William  T.  Harris,  formerly  Commissioner  of  Edu- 
cation of  the  United  States,  Dr.  Elmer  Ellsworth  Brown, 
Dr.  Harris's  successor  in  the  Commissionership,  Professor 
Edward  Delavan  Perry  of  Columbia  University,  Professor 
Andrew  F.  West  of  Princeton  University,  President  M.  Carey 
Thomas  of  Bryn  Mawr  College,  etc.,  etc. 
^[  The  subjects  of  the  monographs  include  such  important 
topics  as  Educational  Organization  and  Administration,  Train- 
ing of  Teachers,  School  Architecture  and  Hygiene,  Profes- 
sional Education,  Education  of  Defectives,  and  Summer 
Schools  and  University  Extension. 

^[  For  the  benefit  of  teachers,  reading  circles,  and  classes  in 
universities,  colleges  and  normal  schools,  each  monograph 
will  be  published  separately  at  20  cents  and  will  be  furnished 
in  quantities  at  $i  5.00  per  hundred  (net). 


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(207) 


VOCATIONAL    EDUCATION 

Bv  JOHN  M.   GILLETTE,  Professor  of  Sociology  in  the 
State  University  of  North  Dakota 

$1.OO 


IN  this  volume  is  presented  for  teachers,  superintendents, 
and  teachers'  reading  circles  an  illuminating  discussion  of 
the  present  general  movement  for  vocational  education. 
By  this  phrase  is  meant  not  only  industrial  education;  but  all 
the  training  courses  needed  to  meet  the  practical  demands  of 
life. 

^]  The  author  explains  at  some  length  the  principles,  de- 
mands, and  methods  of  vocational  education ;  he  states  the 
grounds  upon  which  hopes  of  success  may  reasonably  rest; 
he  indicates  some  actual  results  gained  by  schools  conducted 
on  more  practical  lines ;  and  he  points  out  others  which 
would  follow  upon  the  reorganization  of  our  educational  sys- 
tem in  general. 

^[  The  vocationalizing  of  the  schools  has  regard  to  the  con- 
stitution, inclination,  and  ability  of  the  individual,  and  is  in- 
tended to  give  him  suitable  training  for  his  niche  in  life,  to 
show  him  how  he  can  make  the  most  of  himself  and  in  what 
line  he  can  prove  himself  most  productive  to  society.  At 
the  same  time,  this  scheme  of  education  does  not  ignore  the 
informational,  the  cultural,  and  the  disciplinary  aspects — it 
insists  that  the  individual  be  fitted  for  good  citizenship. 
^[  The  introduction  of  vocational  education  into  the  public 
school  system  of  the  United  States,  with  the  curriculum  ad- 
apted to  the  chief  kinds  of  occupation  belonging  to  each  com- 
munity, will  mean  greater  development  and  power  for  the 
country.  From  vocational  education,  introduced  to  meet  the 
differing  community  needs,  will  result  greater  efficiency  and 
better  appreciation  of  the  schools,  increased  attendance  of 
pupils,  greater  compensation  for  teachers,  greater  productive- 
ness, higher  wages,  and  improved  society. 


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(208) 


000  954  300 1     o 


Education 
Library 

IA 
13 


JS 

CALIFORNIA 


